8. Match the words from the left column with their definitions on the right:

   1. system	a) the particular way someone does things
   2. hierarchical	b) to include a variety of things
   3. level	c) a part or stage in a system which has several parts or stages
   4. science	d) to make something happen
   5. group	e) (of a system or organization): one in which differences in status or rank are very important
   6. to elaborate	f) to trust something or someone to do something for you; to have confidence
   7. generation	g) very detailed and complicated
   8. stable	h) the process of gaining knowledge and experience
   9. behavior	i) a set of connected things that work together
   10. to cause	j) a group of people in society who are born and live about the same time
   11. adult	k) not changing frequently and not likely to suddenly become worse
   12. learning	l) the study and knowledge of the world that is based on proven facts and is organized into a system
   13. range	m) a set of people, animals or things that are considered together because they are similar in some way
   14. to rely	n) someone who is no longer a child

9. Complete the following sentences, using the text:

1. Organized social life, involving groups and gatherings, exists many animal species.

2. Unlike human social organization, of ants appears to remain relatively unchanged generation generation.

3. Urban monkeys higher, initially, on monkey I.Q. tests for complex tasks until the forest monkeys have to learn the tasks.

4. The apes are in an position: part of their behavior is instinctive and part is learned.

5. Many scientists believe that the of instinct is not very useful in the explanation of human .

6. Man powerful urges, such as those involved with food and sex.

7. Instincts promote uniformity than variability, and stability than change.

8. Marriage may be monogamous or .

9. Complex systems of social organization which are the of sociology are the products of behavior and not simply of biological structure.

10. Describe the meanings of the underlined prefixes and suffixes and translate the following words into Russian:

Presocial, organization, breeder, unlike, relatively, reflexive, evolutionary, dominance, arrangement, polygamous.

11. Answer the following questions:

1. What do you know about the social life of animal species not mentioned in the text?

2. Do you agree that the concept of instinct is not very useful in the explanation of human behavior? Give your reasons.

3. What do human beings create in the process of teaching one another? Give your examples.

4. What, in your opinion, facilitates the learning process among humans?

12. Give the main idea of the text of section

Section III.2. Communication (p.42 – p.45)

Words:

communication

consciousness

unconscious

conventional

ethology

gesture

sign

to enrich

dislike (n.)

contempt

face-to-race (a.)

accidentally,

frequently

efficiently

irrelevant

positioning

to stand for

hostility

tolerance

to involve

Phrases:

natural signs

conventional signs

verbal signs

communication through signs

to distinguish something from something

imaginary object

racial superiority

verbal communication

nonverbal communication

so forth

common usage

in conjunction with

bodily movement

facial expression

in some fashion

in either case

to some degree

exchange of messages

evolutionary level

prehuman species

means of communication

level of consciousness

hand movement

verbal threat

to exhibit signs

inner tension

equally complex

to place reliance upon

sharp distinctions

time-space framework

intangible idea

from the standpoint of

a thing apart

possession of language

Commentaries and notes:

in terms of: с точки зрения; в том, что касается

in either case: и в том, и в другом случае. “Either” – каждый (из двух)

…if there is to be a next generation: …если следующему поколению суждено появиться (сравнить с комментарием о “to be to” в Part II “Grammar Workbook” Chapter VII)

As with the amount of…: как и в случае с объемом…

A team … has isolated and cataloged…: Группа … выделила и описала …

These gestures and expressions involve…: “to involve” – включать

this means of human communications: means (формы единственного и множественного числа совпадают) = средство. Сравнить употребление “means” во множественном числе на стр. 46 (3-я строка сверху) с глаголом “mean” – означать. Не путать с существительным meaning – «значение».

in later adulthood: позднее, в более зрелом возрасте

a “smile” may communicate…: to communicate – зд. передавать

psychotic: психически больной

complete reliance must be placed upon: следует полностью полагаться на…

The point may be made…: to make the point – объяснить суть дела

In addition to, and at a more abstract level than that of gestures…: a) “that” – замещает уже названное существительное в единственном числе во избежание его повтора. См. Part II “Grammar Workbook” Chapter VI. В данном случае that = the level b) “in addition to” относится к “gestures”, т.е. имеется в виду: “in addition to gestures and at a more abstract level…”

And it is the use of a type of conventional signs … which makes …: Здесь использована усилительная конструкция “it is … which (that)…” = «именно», «как раз»; “that” – не переводится. См. Part II “Grammar Workbook” Chapter VI.

time-space framework: временные и пространственные рамки

a thing apart: особое, отдельное явление

Man’s humanity: то (характерное), что делает человека человеком; то, что отличает человека.

any other combination of letters could have been used…: модальный глагол could + perfect infinitive “have been used” означает, что такое действие могло бы быть, но его не было.