- •Public Administration And Public Policy
- •Contents
- •Acknowledgments
- •About The Authors
- •Comments On Purpose and Methods
- •Contents
- •1.1 Introduction
- •1.2 Culture
- •1.3 Colonial Legacies
- •1.3.1 British Colonial Legacy
- •1.3.2 Latin Legacy
- •1.3.3 American Legacy
- •1.4 Decentralization
- •1.5 Ethics
- •1.5.1 Types of Corruption
- •1.5.2 Ethics Management
- •1.6 Performance Management
- •1.6.2 Structural Changes
- •1.6.3 New Public Management
- •1.7 Civil Service
- •1.7.1 Size
- •1.7.2 Recruitment and Selection
- •1.7.3 Pay and Performance
- •1.7.4 Training
- •1.8 Conclusion
- •Contents
- •2.1 Introduction
- •2.2 Historical Developments and Legacies
- •2.2.1.1 First Legacy: The Tradition of King as Leader
- •2.2.1.2 Second Legacy: A Tradition of Authoritarian Rule, Centralization, and Big Government
- •2.2.1.3 Third Legacy: Traditions of Hierarchy and Clientelism
- •2.2.1.4 Fourth Legacy: A Tradition of Reconciliation
- •2.2.2.1 First Legacy: The Tradition of Bureaucratic Elites as a Privileged Group
- •2.2.2.2 Second Legacy: A Tradition of Authoritarian Rule, Centralization, and Big Government
- •2.2.2.3 Third Legacy: The Practice of Staging Military Coups
- •2.2.2.4 Fourth Legacy: A Tradition for Military Elites to be Loyal to the King
- •2.2.3.1 First Legacy: Elected Politicians as the New Political Boss
- •2.2.3.2 Second Legacy: Frequent and Unpredictable Changes of Political Bosses
- •2.2.3.3 Third Legacy: Politicians from the Provinces Becoming Bosses
- •2.2.3.4 Fourth Legacy: The Problem with the Credibility of Politicians
- •2.2.4.1 First Emerging Legacy: Big Businessmen in Power
- •2.2.4.2 Second Emerging Legacy: Super CEO Authoritarian Rule, Centralization, and Big Government
- •2.2.4.3 Third Emerging Legacy: Government must Serve Big Business Interests
- •2.2.5.1 Emerging Legacy: The Clash between Governance Values and Thai Realities
- •2.2.5.2 Traits of Governmental Culture Produced by the Five Masters
- •2.3 Uniqueness of the Thai Political Context
- •2.4 Conclusion
- •References
- •Appendix A
- •Contents
- •3.1 Thailand Administrative Structure
- •3.2 History of Decentralization in Thailand
- •3.2.1 Thailand as a Centralized State
- •3.2.2 Towards Decentralization
- •3.3 The Politics of Decentralization in Thailand
- •3.3.2 Shrinking Political Power of the Military and Bureaucracy
- •3.4 Drafting the TAO Law 199421
- •3.5 Impacts of the Decentralization Reform on Local Government in Thailand: Ongoing Challenges
- •3.5.1 Strong Executive System
- •3.5.2 Thai Local Political System
- •3.5.3 Fiscal Decentralization
- •3.5.4 Transferred Responsibilities
- •3.5.5 Limited Spending on Personnel
- •3.5.6 New Local Government Personnel System
- •3.6 Local Governments Reaching Out to Local Community
- •3.7 Conclusion
- •References
- •Contents
- •4.1 Introduction
- •4.2 Corruption: General Situation in Thailand
- •4.2.1 Transparency International and its Corruption Perception Index
- •4.2.2 Types of Corruption
- •4.3 A Deeper Look at Corruption in Thailand
- •4.3.1 Vanishing Moral Lessons
- •4.3.4 High Premium on Political Stability
- •4.4 Existing State Mechanisms to Fight Corruption
- •4.4.2 Constraints and Limitations of Public Agencies
- •4.6 Conclusion
- •References
- •Contents
- •5.1 Introduction
- •5.2 History of Performance Management
- •5.2.1 National Economic and Social Development Plans
- •5.2.2 Master Plan of Government Administrative Reform
- •5.3 Performance Management Reform: A Move Toward High Performance Organizations
- •5.3.1 Organization Restructuring to Increase Autonomy
- •5.3.2 Process Improvement through Information Technology
- •5.3.3 Knowledge Management Toward Learning Organizations
- •5.3.4 Performance Agreement
- •5.3.5 Challenges and Lessons Learned
- •5.3.5.1 Organizational Restructuring
- •5.3.5.2 Process Improvement through Information Technology
- •5.3.5.3 Knowledge Management
- •5.3.5.4 Performance Agreement
- •5.4.4 Outcome of Budgeting Reform: The Budget Process in Thailand
- •5.4.5 Conclusion
- •5.5 Conclusion
- •References
- •Contents
- •6.1.1 Civil Service Personnel
- •6.1.2 Development of the Civil Service Human Resource System
- •6.1.3 Problems of Civil Service Human Resource
- •6.2 Recruitment and Selection
- •6.2.1 Main Feature
- •6.2.2 Challenges of Recruitment and Selection
- •6.3.1 Main Feature
- •6.4.1 Main Feature
- •6.4.2 Salary Management
- •6.4.2.2 Performance Management and Salary Increase
- •6.4.3 Position Allowance
- •6.4.5 National Compensation Committee
- •6.4.6 Retirement and Pension
- •6.4.7 Challenges in Compensation
- •6.5 Training and Development
- •6.5.1 Main Feature
- •6.5.2 Challenges of Training and Development in the Civil Service
- •6.6 Discipline and Merit Protection
- •6.6.1 Main Feature
- •6.6.2 Challenges of Discipline
- •6.7 Conclusion
- •References
- •English References
- •Contents
- •7.1 Introduction
- •7.2 Setting and Context
- •7.3 Malayan Union and the Birth of the United Malays National Organization
- •7.4 Post Independence, New Economic Policy, and Malay Dominance
- •7.5 Centralization of Executive Powers under Mahathir
- •7.6 Administrative Values
- •7.6.1 Close Ties with the Political Party
- •7.6.2 Laws that Promote Secrecy, Continuing Concerns with Corruption
- •7.6.3 Politics over Performance
- •7.6.4 Increasing Islamization of the Civil Service
- •7.7 Ethnic Politics and Reforms
- •7.8 Conclusion
- •References
- •Contents
- •8.1 Introduction
- •8.2 System of Government in Malaysia
- •8.5 Community Relations and Emerging Recentralization
- •8.6 Process Toward Recentralization and Weakening Decentralization
- •8.7 Reinforcing Centralization
- •8.8 Restructuring and Impact on Decentralization
- •8.9 Where to Decentralization?
- •8.10 Conclusion
- •References
- •Contents
- •9.1 Introduction
- •9.2 Ethics and Corruption in Malaysia: General Observations
- •9.2.1 Factors of Corruption
- •9.3 Recent Corruption Scandals
- •9.3.1 Cases Involving Bureaucrats and Executives
- •9.3.2 Procurement Issues
- •9.4 Efforts to Address Corruption and Instill Ethics
- •9.4.1.1 Educational Strategy
- •9.4.1.2 Preventive Strategy
- •9.4.1.3 Punitive Strategy
- •9.4.2 Public Accounts Committee and Public Complaints Bureau
- •9.5 Other Efforts
- •9.6 Assessment and Recommendations
- •9.7 Conclusions
- •References
- •Contents
- •10.1 History of Performance Management in the Administrative System
- •10.1.1 Policy Frameworks
- •10.1.2 Organizational Structures
- •10.1.2.1 Values and Work Ethic
- •10.1.2.2 Administrative Devices
- •10.1.2.3 Performance, Financial, and Budgetary Reporting
- •10.2 Performance Management Reforms in the Past Ten Years
- •10.2.1 Electronic Government
- •10.2.2 Public Service Delivery System
- •10.2.3 Other Management Reforms
- •10.3 Assessment of Performance Management Reforms
- •10.4 Analysis and Recommendations
- •10.5 Conclusion
- •References
- •Contents
- •11.1 Introduction
- •11.2 Malaysian Civil Service
- •11.2.1 Public Service Department
- •11.2.2 Public Service Commission
- •11.2.3 Recruitment and Selection
- •11.2.4 Malaysian Administrative Modernization and Management Planning Unit
- •11.2.5 Administrative and Diplomatic Service
- •11.4 Civil Service Pension Scheme
- •11.5 Civil Service Neutrality
- •11.6 Civil Service Culture
- •11.7 Reform in the Malaysian Civil Service
- •11.8 Conclusion
- •References
- •Contents
- •12.1 Introduction
- •12.2.1 Context and Driving Force of Development
- •12.2.2 Major Institutional Development
- •12.3.1 Context and Driving Force of Development
- •12.3.2 Major Institutional Development
- •12.4.1 Context and Driving Force of Development
- •12.4.2 Major Institutional Development
- •12.5.1 Context and Driving Force of Development
- •12.5.2 Major Institutional Development
- •12.6.1 Context and Driving Force of Development
- •12.6.2 Major Institutional Development
- •12.7 Public Administration and Society
- •12.7.1 Public Accountability and Participation
- •12.7.2 Administrative Values
- •12.8 Societal and Political Challenge over Bureaucratic Dominance
- •12.9 Conclusion
- •References
- •Contents
- •13.1 Introduction
- •13.3 Constitutional Framework of the Basic Law
- •13.4 Changing Relations between the Central Authorities and the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region
- •13.4.1 Constitutional Dimension
- •13.4.1.1 Contending Interpretations over the Basic Law
- •13.4.1.3 New Constitutional Order in the Making
- •13.4.2 Political Dimension
- •13.4.2.3 Contention over Political Reform
- •13.4.3 The Economic Dimension
- •13.4.3.1 Expanding Intergovernmental Links
- •13.4.3.2 Fostering Closer Economic Partnership and Financial Relations
- •13.4.3.3 Seeking Cooperation and Coordination in Regional and National Development
- •13.4.4 External Dimension
- •13.5 Challenges and Prospects in the Relations between the Central Government and the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region
- •References
- •Contents
- •14.1 Honesty, Integrity, and Adherence to the Law
- •14.2 Accountability, Openness, and Political Neutrality
- •14.2.1 Accountability
- •14.2.2 Openness
- •14.2.3 Political Neutrality
- •14.3 Impartiality and Service to the Community
- •14.4 Conclusions
- •References
- •Contents
- •15.1 Introduction
- •15.2 Brief Overview of Performance Management in Hong Kong
- •15.3.1 Measuring and Assessing Performance
- •15.3.2 Adoption of Performance Pledges
- •15.3.3 Linking Budget to Performance
- •15.3.4 Relating Rewards to Performance
- •15.4 Assessment of Outcomes of Performance Management Reforms
- •15.4.1 Are Departments Properly Measuring their Performance?
- •15.4.2 Are Budget Decisions Based on Performance Results?
- •15.4.5 Overall Evaluation
- •15.5 Measurability of Performance
- •15.6 Ownership of, and Responsibility for, Performance
- •15.7 The Politics of Performance
- •15.8 Conclusion
- •References
- •Contents
- •16.1 Introduction
- •16.2 Structure of the Public Sector
- •16.2.1 Core Government
- •16.2.2 Hybrid Agencies
- •16.2.4 Private Businesses that Deliver Public Services
- •16.3 Administrative Values
- •16.4 Politicians and Bureaucrats
- •16.5 Management Tools and their Reform
- •16.5.1 Selection
- •16.5.2 Performance Management
- •16.5.3 Compensation
- •16.6 Conclusion
- •References
- •Contents
- •17.1 Introduction
- •17.2 The Philippines: A Brief Background
- •17.4 Philippine Bureaucracy during the Spanish Colonial Regime
- •17.6 American Colonial Regime and the Philippine Commonwealth
- •17.8 Independence Period and the Establishment of the Institute of Public Administration
- •17.9 Administrative Values in the Philippines
- •17.11 Conclusions
- •References
- •Contents
- •18.1 Introduction
- •18.2 Toward a Genuine Local Autonomy and Decentralization in the Philippines
- •18.2.1 Evolution of Local Autonomy
- •18.2.2 Government Structure and the Local Government System
- •18.2.3 Devolution under the Local Government Code of 1991
- •18.2.4 Local Government Finance
- •18.2.5 Local Government Bureaucracy and Personnel
- •18.3 Review of the Local Government Code of 1991 and its Implementation
- •18.3.1 Gains and Successes of Decentralization
- •18.3.2 Assessing the Impact of Decentralization
- •18.3.2.1 Overall Policy Design
- •18.3.2.2 Administrative and Political Issues
- •18.3.2.2.1 Central and Sub-National Role in Devolution
- •18.3.2.2.3 High Budget for Personnel at the Local Level
- •18.3.2.2.4 Political Capture by the Elite
- •18.3.2.3 Fiscal Decentralization Issues
- •18.3.2.3.1 Macroeconomic Stability
- •18.3.2.3.2 Policy Design Issues of the Internal Revenue Allotment
- •18.3.2.3.4 Disruptive Effect of the Creation of New Local Government Units
- •18.3.2.3.5 Disparate Planning, Unhealthy Competition, and Corruption
- •18.4 Local Governance Reforms, Capacity Building, and Research Agenda
- •18.4.1 Financial Resources and Reforming the Internal Revenue Allotment
- •18.4.3 Government Functions and Powers
- •18.4.6 Local Government Performance Measurement
- •18.4.7 Capacity Building
- •18.4.8 People Participation
- •18.4.9 Political Concerns
- •18.4.10 Federalism
- •18.5 Conclusions and the Way Forward
- •References
- •Annexes
- •Contents
- •19.1 Introduction
- •19.2 Control
- •19.2.1 Laws that Break Up the Alignment of Forces to Minimize State Capture
- •19.2.2 Executive Measures that Optimize Deterrence
- •19.2.3 Initiatives that Close Regulatory Gaps
- •19.2.4 Collateral Measures on Electoral Reform
- •19.3 Guidance
- •19.3.1 Leadership that Casts a Wide Net over Corrupt Acts
- •19.3.2 Limiting Monopoly and Discretion to Constrain Abuse of Power
- •19.3.3 Participatory Appraisal that Increases Agency Resistance against Misconduct
- •19.3.4 Steps that Encourage Public Vigilance and the Growth of Civil Society Watchdogs
- •19.3.5 Decentralized Guidance that eases Log Jams in Centralized Decision Making
- •19.4 Management
- •19.5 Creating Virtuous Circles in Public Ethics and Accountability
- •19.6 Conclusion
- •References
- •Contents
- •20.1 Introduction
- •20.2 Problems and Challenges Facing Bureaucracy in the Philippines Today
- •20.3 Past Reform Initiatives of the Philippine Public Administrative System
- •20.4.1 Rebuilding Institutions and Improving Performance
- •20.4.1.1 Size and Effectiveness of the Bureaucracy
- •20.4.1.2 Privatization
- •20.4.1.3 Addressing Corruption
- •20.4.1.5 Improving Work Processes
- •20.4.2 Performance Management Initiatives for the New Millennium
- •20.4.2.1 Financial Management
- •20.4.2.2 New Government Accounting System
- •20.4.2.3 Public Expenditure Management
- •20.4.2.4 Procurement Reforms
- •20.4.3 Human Resource Management
- •20.4.3.1 Organizing for Performance
- •20.4.3.2 Performance Evaluation
- •20.4.3.3 Rationalizing the Bureaucracy
- •20.4.3.4 Public Sector Compensation
- •20.4.3.5 Quality Management Systems
- •20.4.3.6 Local Government Initiatives
- •20.5 Conclusion
- •References
- •Contents
- •21.1 Introduction
- •21.2 Country Development Context
- •21.3 Evolution and Current State of the Philippine Civil Service System
- •21.3.1 Beginnings of a Modern Civil Service
- •21.3.2 Inventory of Government Personnel
- •21.3.3 Recruitment and Selection
- •21.3.6 Training and Development
- •21.3.7 Incentive Structure in the Bureaucracy
- •21.3.8 Filipino Culture
- •21.3.9 Bureaucratic Values and Performance Culture
- •21.3.10 Grievance and Redress System
- •21.4 Development Performance of the Philippine Civil Service
- •21.5 Key Development Challenges
- •21.5.1 Corruption
- •21.6 Conclusion
- •References
- •Annexes
- •Contents
- •22.1 Introduction
- •22.2 History
- •22.3 Major Reform Measures since the Handover
- •22.4 Analysis of the Reform Roadmap
- •22.5 Conclusion
- •References
- •Contents
- •23.1 Decentralization, Autonomy, and Democracy
- •23.3.1 From Recession to Take Off
- •23.3.2 Politics of Growth
- •23.3.3 Government Inertia
- •23.4 Autonomy as Collective Identity
- •23.4.3 Social Group Dynamics
- •23.5 Conclusion
- •References
- •Contents
- •24.1 Introduction
- •24.2 Functions and Performance of the Commission Against Corruption of Macao
- •24.2.1 Functions
- •24.2.2 Guidelines on the Professional Ethics and Conduct of Public Servants
- •24.2.3 Performance
- •24.2.4 Structure
- •24.2.5 Personnel Establishment
- •24.3 New Challenges
- •24.3.1 The Case of Ao Man Long
- •24.3.2 Dilemma of Sunshine Law
- •24.4 Conclusion
- •References
- •Appendix A
- •Contents
- •25.1 Introduction
- •25.2 Theoretical Basis of the Reform
- •25.3 Historical Background
- •25.4 Problems in the Civil Service Culture
- •25.5 Systemic Problems
- •25.6 Performance Management Reform
- •25.6.1 Performance Pledges
- •25.6.2 Employee Performance Assessment
- •25.7 Results and Problems
- •25.7.1 Performance Pledge
- •25.7.2 Employee Performance Assessment
- •25.8 Conclusion and Future Development
- •References
- •Contents
- •26.1 Introduction
- •26.2 Civil Service System
- •26.2.1 Types of Civil Servants
- •26.2.2 Bureaucratic Structure
- •26.2.4 Personnel Management
- •26.4 Civil Service Reform
- •26.5 Conclusion
- •References
Public Administration in Southeast Asia: An Overview 17
numerous examples where, despite these problems, progress is being made, including increased auditing, stepping up anti-corruption activity in selected agencies (customs, internal revenue, and justice), going after tax evasion, and money laundering. However, changes in elections and campaign finance (and connections with powerful interests) have been hard to come by.
In conclusion, the chapters in this book provide a rich and compelling portrait of ethics in public administration. While unethical conduct lies in the nature of human beings and is found in all countries around the world, their manifestations and extent varies considerably, which, in turn, is shown to be related to the extent that ethics management can be pursued.
1.6 Performance Management
The chapters in this book show considerable effort to improve the performance and competitiveness of public administration in the three countries and two administrative districts of this book.
1.6.1 Five-Year Plans and Comprehensive Plans
Thailand has a system of 5-year plans that lay out major initiatives and shape the direction of public administration in successive periods. The current, tenth 5-year plan (the first was adopted in 1963) emphasizes economic sufficiency and good governance, including improved administrative processes and governance, as well as excellence, “rightsizing,” and fiscal reform. Thailand also launched its third Government Administrative Reform plan, which further develops these aspects.
Malaysia also makes use of long-term plans and policies. At the launch of the Sixth Malaysia Plan in 1991, then Prime Minister Tun Mahathir Mohamed postulated his goal for Malaysia to become a fully industrialized and developed nation by the year 2020. The Third Outline Perspective Plan, also known as the National Vision Policy (NVP, 2001–2010), has been the latest 10-year policy governing Malaysia with similar broad goals and objectives. Five-year development plans, derived from these, are prepared by the Economic Planning Unit, which falls under the purview of the Prime Minister’s Office of Malaysia. Public consultations are increasingly conducted as part of the formulation. Execution and monitoring is done by the Implementation Coordination Unit (ICU), also falling under the Prime Minister’s Office.
In Macao, the government announced in 2007 a road map for administrative reform that emphasizes balanced development, re-establishing civil service values, strengthening the interaction between the government and the public, improving the organizational structure, and solidifying the inter-related responsibilities among the government, civil servants, and the public. The road map places a lot of emphasis on building up social capital as well as cultivating constructive and productive civil service values and beliefs. Bolong assesses that “so far, the reform roadmap has only achieved limited results in the areas of government restructuring, policy-making training, and improvement in efficiency.”
1.6.2 Structural Changes
Hong Kong has adopted a wide array of institutions to deliver public services. The trend has been toward moving away from traditional bureau-type agencies toward more hybrids that allow greater flexibility while attempting to ensure accountability. These changes have seen the number of civil service posts shrink from a high of 190,000 in 1990 to about 160,000 in 2008. Thailand, too, has moved to a broader range of public organizations. Tippawan and Ponlapat note that in
© 2011 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC
18 Public Administration in Southeast Asia
the past, there were only two main types of organizations in the Thai public sector, government agency and the state enterprise. Now, “there are many kinds of public agencies in the Thai public sector, ranging from the lowest level to the highest level of autonomy, as follows: government agencies, service delivery units (SDUs), public organizations (POs), autonomous organizations, state enterprises, public company limited, and independent agencies under the constitution.” Many of these operate with increased autonomy, and have their own establishment act.
1.6.3 New Public Management
Throughout much of the world, the overarching framework for improving performance in the last decade has been new performance management (NPM), with its themes of greater citizen and customer responsiveness, performance measurement and accountability, and services streamlining. Process-re engineering, e-government, and re-organization (with some measure of agencification and contracting out) are the widely used strategies. Strategies for improving individual performance are discussed below, in the section on the civil service.
Cheung notes that performance management began in Hong Kong in 1992 with performance pledges and the establishment of an Efficiency Unit. A program management system was instituted in 1993, requiring each department to establish performance measures and targets for its programs. These evolved into separate effectiveness (service quality) and efficiency measures. Reports are annually submitted to the Finance Committee of the Legislative Council. In 2002, the budget processes emphasized relating resource allocation to performance and policy results. In recent years, the emphasis has been to:
Focusing on the changing needs of the community
Shifting from a process-oriented approach to a customer-oriented approach
Developing the management system to cater for continuous changes
Recognizing the effort and flexibility of government departments in supporting changing policy objectives
Measuring performance for government units involved in delivering integrated services
Linking up budget with performance result
Adopting a life cycle perspective for continuous improvement
Still, Cheung concludes that despite a decade of practice, serious questions remain. Performance measures are not always used or quantified, do not always address program outcomes, and have unclear or misleading information. There are problems with inter-departmental coordination, spending does not always reflect “budgeting for results,” and pay for performance schemes have been rejected. Citizens seem more satisfied, but their involvement and participation is minimal.
E-government is used in many countries. Ponlapat and Tippawan state that in Thailand, after Thaksin Shinawatra came to the power in 2001, there was a big leap in information technology usage in the public sector. He attempted to launch many e-government projects, i.e., e-auction, smart card, and GFMIS (Government Fiscal Management Information Systems). During 2001– 2006, the government under Thaksin had spent approximately 90,000 million baht (about $2.5 billion) for e-government projects. In 2002, the Thai cabinet made a resolution that every department and state enterprise had to procure through e-auction and report the progress of implementation to the Office of Prime Minister every 3 months. However, an evaluation finds that “many e-government projects during the Thaksin government were influenced by modern technology rather than the real needs of the people.”
© 2011 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC
Public Administration in Southeast Asia: An Overview 19
Thailand also uses Performance Agreement as a tool for monitoring and evaluating the performance of government agencies. The concept of the Balanced Scorecard has been applied as a framework of performance evaluation. The number of agencies that implement knowledge management, including Communities of Practice, is increasing (from 46.8% in 2001–2005 to 76% in 2006), but only 34.3% of implementers fully use knowledge management, whereas 41.1% of implementers use it with limitations.
In the area of budgeting, T hailand has had an excellent record of budget control. Public debt in Thailand has been quite low by international standards. The core objective of the budget reform in Thailand was to reduce centralized budget control by granting spending agencies more flexibility in their spending. Ponlapat and Tippawan describe how in 1999, the Bureau of the Budget agreed to ease detailed central control over spending agencies by reducing some line-item details in their budget allocations and moving toward block grants on the condition that the spending agencies must be able to pass seven hurdle standards. Slow progress was actually the problem in Thailand because the hurdle standards were set at such a high level that hardly any organization could fulfi ll them. Being dissatisfied with the pace of progress, the Thai government decided that all ministries and agencies (not just pioneers) would move to the new performance-based budgeting system—which was now termed the strategic performance-based budget (SPBB). This became effective in fiscal year 2003. In the SPBB framework, the first 4-year Government Administrative Plan was implemented in 2005. The plan was divided into nine strategies, and agencies need to show how their spending furthers these goals.
In Malaysia, the Administration Modernization and Management Planning Unit (MAMPU) is tasked with administrative modernization and human resources planning. Interest in modernization started early. In 1982, MAMPU launched a campaign based on Islamic values, which included calls for a clean, efficient, and trustworthy public administration. Performance reports were first introduced in 1979, and in 1982, the Anti-Corruption Agency (ACA) was also established under the Anti-Corruption Act. In the late 1980s and early 1990s, under the Excellent Work Culture, the civil service was to be transformed into a more customer-focused, result and performance-oriented, responsive, accountable, and innovative public service, and a broad range of total quality management (TQM) and NPM reforms were introduced such as quality circles, and a very broad range of e-government initiatives. The early 1990s saw the introduction of revision in procedural matters of the public service delivery system, and a landmark initiative in 1996 was for Malaysia to require its entire Government machinery to adhere to ISO standards, the first country in the world to do so. Yeoh assesses that “collectively, performance management reforms in Malaysia have resulted in improving efficiency at the bureaucratic and public service delivery system levels.” Yeoh cites a range of competitive rankings showing how Malaysia’s ranking has improved in the world.
Domingo and Reyes note that performance management has long been a fi xture in the Philippines: “Since the Independence period, reform measures and program towards streamlining the bureaucracy have been a continuing effort and various measures have been adopted and legislated to promote the performance of the bureaucracy in the Philippines.” In recent times, these have focused on “reorganization, streamlining, reengineering, reinventing, performance management, and quality management, among others.” They conclude that “the shift to results-based management is gaining ground in the Philippines,” and their chapter includes many examples of improved service quality and responsiveness to citizens. Still, the development of indicators and measurement still needs attention. But they also point to a broader issue: “The recent economic crisis in the United States indicates that a ‘minimalist state’ is not necessarily the desirable reform measure for government. NPM methods are proving useful in the
© 2011 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC