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Cappadocian; there is too much true facial Dinaricism for the Danubian to be the only factor, and too much blondism and nasal concavity for the Cappadocian.

The Georgians, with a high incidence of concave noses, as well as the greatest blondism, are the most nearly Danubian; except for the Cherkesses, most of the other peoples are more Dinaric. On the whole, the Dinaricism of the Caucasian area is only partial; there are too many unaltered Medi­terraneans, and too many Alpine-Danubian mixtures, which, here as in Croatia and Slovenia, fail to assume a Dinaric facial form, to make the Caucasus as Dinaric a country as the Tyrol or Albania.

Syria, Anatolia, Armenia, and the Caucasus form a zone of Alpine reemergence on the border of Mediterranean racial territory. In all four regions there has been a major blending with Mediterraneans, and the differences between the racial characters of the regions depend upon (a) the relative degree of Alpine reemergence, and (b) the kinds and relative amounts of Mediterranean involved in each. The linguistic complexity, involving Semitic, Uralic, Altaic, Indo-European, and Caucasic languages, merely reflects the racial complexity within the Mediterranean component of this primary refuge area.

11. Turkestan and the tajiks

Beyond the stretch of steppes and desert immediately east of the Caspian Sea, where the brunet Mediterranean race, through the agency of the Turkomans, is brought into direct contact with mongoloids, lies the once densely populated oasis country of Russian Turkestan, sparsely watered by the Amu Daria or Oxus, which rises in the Pamirs and flows past Bokhara and Khiva into the Aral Sea, and by the smaller Syr Daria, which, from its source in the Tian Shan Mountains, provides irrigation for Ferghana, Samarkand, and Tashkent.

Russian Turkestan was once a seat of Iranian-speaking civilization;¹⁵⁸ but since the sixth century a.d. it has been constantly overrun by invaders from different quarters. First the Turks subjugated the Iranian farmers, then the Chinese defeated the Turks and ruled the country for a century; then the Arabs, entering Turkestan by way of Persia, defeated the Chinese in 751 a.d., and remained in power until the thirteenth century, since which time, until the Russian conquest, Turkestan has been ruled by various bodies of Turks and by Mongols.

The present peoples of Russian Turkestan are numerous and varied, but may be divided into two principal groups, the Tajiks and the Turkish- speakers. The Tajiks, who number over a million in Russian Turkestan,

168. This brief introduction is based largely on Jochelson’s Peoples of Asiatic Russia, Chapter 4. See also, K. E. von Ujfalvy, Les Aryens au Nord et au Sud de VHindou Kouch.

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have between one and two million brethren in Afghan territory. In the for­mer country they inhabit the oases of Ferghana, Samarkand, and Bokhara, where they live as farmers marvelously skilled at irrigation; they are the linguistically unaltered descendants of the pre-Turkish cultivators. Their western geographical limit is the Bokhara country; there are no Tajiks in Khiva. On the plains the Tajiks proper form but a small proportion of the population, since many others have been absorbed into the Turkish ethnic world. Besides these plainsmen, there are many more in the moun­tains, who live in farming villages as a unified population reaching over the Pamirs into Afghanistan. These mountain people have presumably been less subjected to Turkish influences than have those of the plain.

The second principal ethnic and linguistic group, that of the Turkish- speakers, is divided into two principal and many minor subdivisions; the important ones are the Uzbegs and the Sarts. The Uzbegs are pastoral nomads linguistically related to the Kirghiz, who have settled down in considerable numbers during the last century. They are tfce descendants of a mixture of Turks, Mongols, and Iranians, whose principal ancestors were recruited from the Turkish tribes of northern Turkestan, and con­verted to Islam in the fourteenth century. They are the aristocrats of the country and the rulers of some of the city khanates have been drawn from their ranks.

The Sarts are assimilated Tajiks with the addition of considerable Turkish blood; they are farmers, townsmen, and traders, living in all of the oases west of Khiva. Other Turkish speakers are the Turkomans, particularly numerous in Khiva and on the plains to the west, Kipchaks, Kara Kalpaks or Black Hats, Tatars from Russia, and Turkish-speaking Moslems from Chinese Turkestan. There are also Mongol Kalmucks in Russian Turkestan in small numbers, Moslems, whereas their kinsmen elsewhere are Buddhists. A few thousand Arabs left over from the early Moslem conquest still remain, although most of them were absorbed by the Uzbegs. Persians, Hindus, Gypsies, and an ancient colony of Jews, centered at Bokhara, make up the rest of the non-Russian population.

The Uzbegs, who as partial whites concern us here in only a collateral sense, are hardly sufficiently unified in race to be dealt with as a single body.¹⁵⁹ Many of them are purely or nearly purely white, others are apparently pure Mongols, while the majority occupy positions in between. Nearly all are brachycephalic, for few long-headed elements have been absorbed into their body; many of them belong to that hybrid type, called Turanid by von Eickstedt,¹⁶⁰ and characterized by brachycephaly, con­vergent parietal walls, a nearly straight beard of medium abundance, a

159. Vishnevsky, B. N., A CIA, 3me sess., 1927, pp. 243-248.

160. See Chapter VIII, section 6, p. 287. *

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long, broad face, a low-rooted, long, and often convex-profiled nose, with a high-orbitted but heavy-lidded eye. The Sarts are also a variable group, but are much less mongoloid on the whole than the Uzbegs, and in many cases are identical with the Tajiks.

Since the Tajiks form the basis of the population of Russian Turkestan as well as of the mountains to the south, and since all other elements in the population are known and have been described, our only concern here is the elucidation of the racial position of the Tajiks. This is a com­paratively easy task.¹⁶¹ The Tajiks are of moderate stature, with a mean of 166 cm., the same in the oases of Samarkand and Ferghana, in the foot­hill country of Ura-Tuba and Pedjerent, and in the mountains, lying be­tween the headwaters of the Syr Daria and those of the Amu Daria, in Afghanistan. Their arm length and arm segment proportions show them to resemble closely southern Germans and Frenchmen, in other words Alpines; at the same time they differ profoundly in these respects from mongoloids. In shoulder breadth, and in an especially great pelvic width, they again show their lateral constitutional tendency, and their Alpine body build.

The dimensions and proportions of the heads and faces of the Tajiks as a whole are as ideally Alpine as one can find in any unsorted population series; they might equally well have been measured upon samples from the most purely Alpine districts of France or Bavaria. The head length mean is 180 mm., the head breadth 155 mm., the cephalic index, 86. The auricular height is 127 mm., and the series hypsicephalic. The mini­mum frontal is 107 mm., the bizygomatic, 141 mm., and the bigonial,

107. mm.; the face height, 124 mm., the nose height, 55 mm., and the nose breadth, 34. The facial index is 88, on the border between mesoprosopy and leptoprosopy; the nasal index, 65.

On the whole, the mountaineers and the people of Ura-Tuba and Ped­jerent are the same, but the oasis-dwellers of Samarkand are narrower- headed, narrower-faced, and narrower-nosed, while at the same time wider in the distance between the eyes, with a cephalic index of 84, and a nasal index of 62. Another difference between the Samarkand series and the mountaineers is in the biorbital diameter, taken between the outer eye corners; 94 mm. in Samarkand, and 92 mm. in the others. At the same time, the interorbital distance, between the inner corners, is actually narrower in the Samarkand group (30.7 mm.) than in the mountains (34.5 mm.). Hence the divergence of the Samarkand people from the mountaineers cannot be in a mongoloid direction. The series from the

159. Thanks to the generosity of Prof. Boris N. Vishnevsky, of the Institute of Anthro­pology and Ethnography at Leningrad, who has most graciously permitted me to make use of his fully documented series of over 300 Tajiks, hitherto published only in part and in a preliminary report.

Vishnevsky, B. N., A CIA, 3me sess., 1927, pp. 243-248.

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oases of Ferghana differs from the mountain group in the same direction, but not to the same degree as that of the Samarkand Tajiks. This direction points, in a metrical sense, toward the Irano-Afghan Mediterranean type prevalent among the Turkomans, and also, as we shall see later, toward that of the Bokharan Jews.

The skin color of the Tajiks is a brunet-white to a light brown, from von Luschan jj 10 to #16; it is lighter on the plain than in the mountains. About 55 per cent have dark eyes, with a great majority of light brown; the remainder are mostly dark-mixed, of both blue-brown and green- brown shades. The plainsmen of Samarkand and Ferghana run to 85 per cent of dark eyes, with many dark browns. The head hair color is black in 35 per cent of the mountain group, and over 60 per cent in the oases; the rest are dark brown in both, except for a very small incidence of partial blondism. The beard color is the same as that of the head hair, as a rule, although there is a slight tendency to reddish brown.

The hair form is usually straight on the beard as well as on the head; the eyebrows are usually thick and concurrent. The beard development reaches a maximum white condition, with heavy growth on the cheek and jaw as well as on the mustache and chin. There is, however, a 10 per cent minority with weak development. Hair is also usual on the chest, abdomen, arms, and legs; 12 per cent even have it on their backs. In this maximum pilosity the mountaineers are outstanding; the Tajiks of Samarkand and Ferghana, while still very hairy, are less so.

Most of the Tajiks have pentagonoid or oval faces, the latter form being especially marked in the lowlands; the horizontal profile of the face, however, is flattish in over 50 per cent of the group, in marked contrast to the narrowness and beakiness of Turkomans and Persians. That this condition is Alpine rather than mongoloid is shown by the lack of forward malar projection.

The mountain Tajiks have noses that are definitely Alpine in most cases; the root is usually of medium depth, under moderate browridges; the bridge is medium to high, with oblique walls, the tip is of moderate thick­ness, often slightly bifurcated, and usually horizontal; the wings of medium lateral extension. Straight or wavy profiles are found among 60 per cent, convex among 25 per cent, concave among the rest. The noses of the oasis people, on the other hand, tend to high roots, lack of nasion depres­sion, convex profiles, and compressed wings.

A few Tajiks have round nostrils, and others a horizontal nostril axis; these show definitely mongoloid tendencies, as do some 4 per cent with slight epicanthic eyefolds. Armenoid or Dinaric tendencies are more prevalent; some 17 per cent of occipital flattening is found in the total group, but it is more frequent on the lowlands than in the mountains,

THE RACES OF EUROPE

where it reaches but 8 per cent. Lambdoid flattening is commoner. The great majority have curvoccipital, globular cranial vaults, with both high and broad foreheads which are rarely more than slightly sloping.

The mountain Tajiks, both metrically and morphologically, are as pure Alpines as it is possible to find anywhere in the white racial area today; but like other Alpines, they show a minor tendency toward a Dinaric or Arme­noid form, owing to the presence of Mediterranean strains in their midst. The Nordic racial element which the bearers of Iranian speech may have brought to this population has been almost entirely absorbed, although a few blonds, resembling those found among the Ossetes in the Caucasus, are to be seen. Mongoloid admixture is present in small quantity; most of the mongoloid racial characters are so at variance with those of the Tajiks that when present, mongoloid blood may easily be perceived.

On the plain, in the oases of Ferghana and at Samarkand, there is a strong admixture of narrow-headed, narrow-faced, thin-nosed, high­nosed, brunet Mediterraneans, of the general Irano-Afghan type. This divergence from the mountain Tajik type is at variance with the theory that mongoloids have mixed with the people of the oases. The acquisition of this Mediterranean strain may be explained by any one or more of the following theses: (a) admixture of Turkomans at the beginning of the Turkish invasion; (b) the absorption of Persian slaves; (c) the absorption of Jews; (d) the survival of an early Turkish strain in the oases from the days of initial food production, or of the beginnings of horse nomadism. Historically, any of the first three may or may not be possible; the fourth is rendered possible only by a tentative acceptance of the theory of Turkish origins propounded earlier in this volume.

How much farther eastward the zone of Alpine reemergence goes beyond Russian Turkestan, cannot be told on the basis of available published data. If it extends beyond the Tian Shan, it has been so modified through mixture with mongoloids that its identification would be difficult. The Tajiks form the last complete outpost in the wide zone of Alpine survival or reemergence which reaches eastward with few breaks from France over a stretch of nearly 5,000 miles. Like their counterparts in the far west, they are more Alpine and less altered by Mediterranean admixture than most of those who live in between.

(20) THE BRACHYCEPHALIZED JEWS: ASIA AND

CENTRAL EUROPE¹⁶²

Our study of the Alpine peoples and their mixed derivatives leads

directly to that of the European and central Asiatic Jews, for their racial

162. Here as in Chapter II, section 7, I wish to express my gratitude to Professor Harry

Wolfson for elucidating the historical and cultural aspects of the Jewish racial problem.

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history is an intimate part of the problem of Central European brachy­cephaly, and deserves treatment in that connection. At the same time, the Jews cannot be treated as a geographical unit; they are ubiquitous within certain economic and cultural horizons.- Their distribution is definitely limited, but its limits are not fundamentally spatial. For this reason their racial character has been affected more by social and economic consider­ations than by latitude and longitude.

In Chapter XI, section 7, we have already surveyed the racial position of the Sephardie Jews, i.e., the descendants of the Jews expelled from Spain and Portugal in 1492, as well as of the Oriental Jews who live in the stretch of Mediterranean racial territory extending from Morocco to Iran. By means of this survey we have established the existence of a definite and very constant Jewish racial entity, variable within itself but varying equally in all geographical groups. This Jewish racial entity is almost purely Mediterranean, and is the result of the combining of several Mediterranean types in Palestine and elsewhere during the courses of Jewish history. Having established what appears to be the basic Jewish racial entity, our next step is to discover what alterations this entity has undergone in the course of the complex history of the Ashkenazic Jews in Europe and of the Oriental Jews living in parts of Asia other than those already studied.

Let us first study the Jews of Turkestan, who are descended from off­shoots of the ancient Persian colony, and who were isolated from the rest of the Jewish world for several centuries before the Russian occupation of the central Asiatic khanates. These Jews have been made the subjects of an especially thorough study and merit detailed attention.¹⁶³

In the first place, the Jews of Bokhara and Samakand are the same, and seem in turn to be identical with those living in Herat in Afghanistan. Thus these northeastern and eastern Jewish peoples who speak a Persian dialect form a single racial unit. They are of moderate stature, 166 cm., nearly the same as the Tajiks among whom they (the Bokharan Jews) have lived for over a millennium. They are narrower-shouldered than the Tajiks, shorter-trunked, and longer-legged; their bodily proportions preserve more of a Mediterranean racial character. Their heads are absolutely short, with a mean length of 180 mm.; narrower than those of the Tajiks, with a mean breadth of 153 mm., but fully brachycephalic, with a mean cephalic index of 85. Despite this brachycephalization they preserve distinctive traits in the diameters of the face; their minimum

¹⁶³ Weissenberg, S., MAGW, vol. 43, 1914, pp. 257-272.

Vishnevsky, B. N., ACIA, 3me sess., 1927, pp. 234-248.

Professor Vishnevsky has given me permission to use the detailed data of his Turke­stan Jewish series, along with those of hi* Tajik series.

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frontal mean is 104 mm., their bizygomatic, 139 mm., and bigonial, 104 mm. Thus they are definitely narrower in all three dimensions than their non-Jewish neighbors, are not much wider in the essential facial diameters than long-headed Jews. Their interorbital (31.3 mm.) and biorbital (90.9 mm.) diameters are narrower than those of other central Asiatic peoples; they have thus also preserved the original Jewish narrowness between the eyes. Their faces, with a mean length of 125.4 mm. are 2 mm. longer than those of their neighbors; their noses, with a mean length of 57 mm., also 2 mm. longer. Their facial index of 90.5 is leptoprosopic, their nasal index, 62, 3 to 4 points lower than those of the narrowest noses of the other peoples of Turkestan with whom they are in contact.

Metrically, therefore, it would be wrong to infer from the cephalic index alone that the Bokharan Jews were simply Judaized Tajiks, or Sarts, or Judaized Turkestan people in general; what they actually are is brachycephalized Jews, who have preserved their Mediterranean facial characters almost intact.

They are almost all brunet-white in skin color, lighter than the Tajiks as a whole; in eye color, 57 per cent are purely brunet, and mostly light brown, while of the mixed eyes, the great majority are dark-mixed. Fifty per cent have black head hair; 40 per cent, dark brown; and another 10 per cent, brown to blond. In their general pigment character they are approximately the same as the mountain Tajiks, but somewhat lighter than those of the oases. They are, however, as heavily bearded as the Tajiks, and as abundantly supplied with body hair.

They are mostly dlipsoid in facial form, and have much less malar projection than the Tajiks, in fact their malars are usually compressed, in great contrast to those of the pardy mongoloid Sarts and Uzbegs. In their nose form their non-mongoloid and non-Alpine character is fully expressed; 44 per cent have convex profiles, 40 per cent straight, and 9 per cent wavy, while only 7 per cent are concave. The tip is depressed in 37 per cent of cases. To match the nasal convexity and tip depression ls a 17 per cent ratio of occipital flattening, and a high incidence of small, slanting celts.

The observational material confirms the metrical data; the Jews of Russian Turkestan are true Palestinian Mediterraneans who have been brachycephalized by a process of Dinaricization; the agent of brachy- cephalization is Alpine, and undoubtedly the same as the Alpine ele­ment among the Tajik. The Turkish and Mongol invasions of Turke­stan, which brought much mongoloid blood to the general population, have left the Jews almost unaffected. One case of epicanthus observed by Vishnevsky alone provides an exception.

If the endogamy of the Bokharan Jews has been sufficient to exclude

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mongoloid influences almost entirely, it has also preserved a Jewish racial type since before the mongoloid arrival. The amount of Alpine infusion necessary to generate the brachycephalization of this people must have been slight. Some of it may, indeed, have been acquired in transit across northern Persia. The lesson taught by this particular study is that brachy­cephaly among Jews does not in itself imply the absence of a basic Pales­tinian racial character.

Let us continue our study of brachycephalized Oriental Jews who live in various geographical units derived from different Jewish sources. The Jews of Asia Minor are descendants of the Byzantine Jews, reenforced by many Sephardim. In Kurdistan there is a very old settlement of Aramaic­speaking Jews, who have no rabbis but who worship the tombs of prophets, and who live with the Kurds symbiotically as traders and makers of jewelry for the Kurdish women. In the Caucasus there are Jewish settle­ments dating back, according to local tradition, to Assyrian times, but historically these settlements were first mentioned in the fifth century a.d., and the Jews who composed them were said to have come from Persia, The main Jewish section of the Caucasus is Daghestan, in Lesghian country; the Jews here, numerous in the time of the Khazars, are now scattered in a few mountain villages, and speak the same Persian dialect as do the Tats. Another group of Jews, known as Georgian Jews, lives in Georgia, espe­cially in Tiflis.

In the Crimea there are still settlements of Karaite Jews, who speak the Jagatai Turkish of the Khazars, as do the Krimchaks, but the latter are rabbinical whereas the Karaites are not, and the Krimchaks have absorbed Jews from Italy. Some of the Karaites are found in small colonies in Poland and Lithuania, as well as in the Crimea.

The Jews of the Caucasus ¹⁶⁴ including the mountain Jews of Daghestan, the Georgian Jews, and the Shemakha Jews who live in Azerbaijan, are highly brachycephalic. Metrically, samples of all these groups are much alike, with mean statures ranging from 163 to 166 cm., and cephalic indices of 85 and 86. They are all predominantly brunet, and have straight or convex nasal profiles. Their faces are of medium length (125 mm.), and broader than those of the Bokharan Jews (141 mm. ca.). They are, however, still extremely leptorrhine, with nasal indices of 59 to 63. The general racial character is Dinaric, with more Alpine mixed with the original Jewish Mediterranean strains than in Turkestan. It is a mistake to call them Armenoid, for their faces and noses do not approach those of the Armenians in either length or breadth. Any Armenian can

¹⁶⁴ Chantre, E., Recherches anthropologiques dans VAsie Occidental

Dzhavakhov, A. N., RAJ, vol. 8, 1912, pp. 57-75.

Weissenberg, S., AFA, ns. vol. 10, 19.11, pp. 233-239,

THE RACES OF EUROPE

distinguish with ease between a fellow Armenian and a Jew, and the distinction is substantiated metrically.

Little difference may be found between the Karaite Jews of the Crimea,¹⁶⁵ whose relatives contributed a small but renowned element to the com­position of the European Ashkenazim body, and those of the Caucasus. The mean stature of the Karaites is 164.5 cm., their mean cephalic index 85, their nasal index 60; 75 per cent of them are brunet, but 5 per cent are light or prevailingly light in complexion. Their facial dimensions are the same as those of the Caucasus Jews, and the same conclusions drawn in regard to the latter apply to the Karaites.

Karaites living outside of the Crimea, however, have failed to preserve their characteristic metrical position. Those settled in the Egyptian Delta ¹⁶⁶ have a mean cephalic index of 74.6 and are little different from other Egyptian Jews, while Karaites of Lithuania ¹⁶⁷ have a mean cephalic index of 81, a stature of 162 cm., and 55 per cent of fair skin color and an equal amount of mixed eye hues. Over 40 per cent have also brown or light brown hair color. Concave noses, the antithesis of a Jewish condition, are found among 50 per cent, while nasal convexity is almost entirely absent. The Lithuanian Karaites have apparently been thoroughly mixed with Neo-Danubian peoples either locally or in transit; their stature level is very low, but this may be accounted for environmentally. On the basis of available data, there is little to connect the Lithuanian Karaites with those of the Crimea, except their retention of brunet pig­mentation in nearly half the group. However, further data than is now available would be needed to make this conclusion certain.

Having reviewed the racial characters of the rest of the Jews in Europe, North Africa, and Asia, insofar as available data have permitted, we are now faced with the task of studying the Ashkenazim. These modern central European Jews, concentrated in the Ukraine, White Russia, northern Rumania, Galicia, Poland in general, Lithuania, Germany, Bohemia, and Austria, have been subjected to considerable study, espe­cially those living in Poland and Lithuania and the countries to the east.¹⁶⁸

¹⁶⁶ Weissenberg, S., AFA, vol. 34, 1907, pp. 219-220.

we Weissenberg, S., MAGW, vol. 42, 1912, pp. 85-102.

¹⁸⁷ Talko-Hryncewicz, J., MAAE, vol. 7, 1904, pp. 44-100.

¹⁶⁸Fishberg, M., ANYA, vol. 16, part 2, 1905, pp. 155-297 is the most exhaustive single treatise, and contains a bibliography of previous works.

Other works used in the present study include:

Beddoe, J., TESL, vol. 1, part 2, 1861, pp. 222-237.

Davenport, C., and Love, A., Army Anthropometry.

Deckert, E., ZFE, vol. 9, 1877, pp. 39-41.

Dubowski, W., R6sum6 in AFA, vol. 14, 1883, pp. 61-71.

Fligier, C., MAGW, vol. 9, 1880, pp. 155-157.

(ContinuechoTi page 643.)

643

These studies, especially that of Fishberg, show a number of important points clearly. One is that the Jews as a whole, without regard to specific political divisions, form an ethnic community with as much statistical homogeneity as do most ethnic groups which have elsewhere been treated as units. Although varied in racial origin and varied individually, in the racial characters measured, the usual distribution pattern is an approxi­mation to a bell-shaped curve. The Ashkenazim of eastern Europe, at least, form a biological unit. This is only to be expected when one con­siders the spatial mobility of the Jews in history, and, by contrast, their endogamy within the larger religious community.

Another is that stature among the Ashkenazim is environmentally and socially conditioned to a large extent, and geographically variable in a much lesser degree. Mean statures for regional groups vary from 162 cm. to 167 cm., with a general mean around the figure 164 cm. In a rough way, the stature level corresponds to that of the local Gentiles, but is one or two centimeters lower in each region. In England, where the Jews have enjoyed relatively favorable living conditions, and in America among the American born Jews, the stature rises to high levels. In Europe, indoor workers such as tailors and shoemakers have the smallest statures, professional men the tallest; the occupational range is from 160 cm. to over 170 cm. Since the mean stature of the Palestinian Jews was at least 166 cm. in the days before the Diaspora, and since the purely Jewish element in the modern Jewish body must almost everywhere be potentially as tall as that of the Gentiles among whom they live, if not taller, the short stature of eastern European Jews as a whole is, therefore, entirely a reflection of environmental and occupational forces. Their rapid size in­crease on American soil, in response to better living conditions and perhaps also to a relief from a constant nervous tension, may be partly interpreted

Guthe, C., AJPA, vol. 1, 1918, pp. 213-223.

Himmel, H., MAGW, vol. 18, 1888, pp. 83-84.

Hrdli£ka, A., The Old Americans.

Jacobs, J., JRAI, vol. 15, 1886, pp. 23-62.

Lempertowna, G., Kosmos, vol. 52, 1927, pp. 782-819.

Lipiec, M., MAGW, vol. 42, 1912, pp. 115-195; ACIA, 2me sess., 1926.

Kossovitch, N., and Benoit, F., RDAP, vol. 42, 1932, pp. 99-125.

Majer, J., and Kopernicki, I., ZWAK, vol. 9, 1885, pp. 1-92.

Pantuchow, J. J., PRAO, vol. 1, 1888, pp. 26-30; R6sum6 in AFA, vol. 26, 1899, pp. 211-213.

Pittard, E., Les Peuples des Balkans.

Rutkowski, L., MAAE, vol. 2, 1910, pp. 65-121.

Sailer, K., ZFMA, vol. 32, 1933, pp. 125-131.

Talko-Hryncewicz, J., ZWAK, vol. 16, 1892; R6sum6 in MAGW, vol. 21, 1891, p. 63.

Weissenberg, S., AFA, vol. 23, 1894-95, pp. 347-423, 531-579; ZFE, vol. 44, 1912, pp. 269-274.

Wiazemsky, Prince, Anth, vol. 22, 1911, pp. 197-201.

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as a fulfilment of their genetic possibilities and cannot necessarily be claimed as something entirely new. In the same sense, the inferior chest diameters of the East European Jews, once considered a racial character, are seen to rise to the non-Jewish standard in America.

The head form of the Ashkenazim is relatively constant within the regions of maximum Jewish concentration; in Germany the mean cephalic index for Jews is about 81, rising to 83.5 in Baden; in Galicia again it reaches the level of Baden, and in Bukovina attains 84, but elsewhere, from Austria to the Ukraine and Lithuania, it centers about the mean of 82. There is a slight tendency for the cephalic index level to vary region­ally as does that of the corresponding Gentiles, but this tendency is neither strong nor wholly consistent. It is chiefly manifest in the relatively high indices in Galicia and Bukovina. Everywhere in central and eastern Europe, except in comparatively long-headed regions such as Moldavia, the Jews are less brachycephalic than the Gentiles. The central European Jews have been only partly brachycephalized, less so than the Christians, and in view of their wide geographical spread, have maintained a remark­able racial continuity in head form.

A third consideration, that of pigmentation, is found to agree in principle with stature and with head form; the Jews are mainly brunet, with about 55 per cent of dark hair and eye color combinations, and less than 10 per cent which can be construed as blond. In countries where the Gentiles are predominantly blond, or more blond than brunet, the Jews are relatively dark; in countries such as Rumania where the Gentiles are prevailingly brunet, the Jews are blonder than the Gentiles. The Jews have, therefore, struck a pigment balance which is as constant as their balance in head form.

In the dimensions of the head and face, the Jews have likewise developed certain consistencies which operate regardless of geography. The head length is always, except in socially selected groups, less than 190 mm., and often less than 185 mm. The bizygomatic is less than 140 mm., with the same exceptions, and usually stands at the level of 135 mm. or 136 mm., and the nose breadth mean ranges usually between 34 and 36 mm. The vertical diameters of the face and nose are, in existing material, seldom reliable, but there is reason to believe that the upper face height is relatively long in reference to the total face height, which is a Mediterranean racial character. Convexity of the nose, a popular diagnostic of Jews, is usually found in far fewer than 50 per cent; straight noses are in all regional Jewish groups the commonest of profile forms, while, in southern Russia, concave profiles are more frequent than convex.

The physical composition of the central European Jewish body has not been difficult to determine. The Ashkenazim are a reasonably uniform people in a statistical sense; furthermore, many of their metrical characters,

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as far as we know them, are not markedly different from those of their Mediterranean Jewish ancestors. The facial diameters, for example, relate them closely to the Mediterranean prototype, in strong contrast to the broader faces of the Alpines and Neo-Danubians among whom most of them live. The head form, on the other hand, shows a partial brachy- cephalization which must be due to the absorption of Gentile blood. At the same time the presence of a strong minority with mixed or light pigmentation makes such an absorption necessary. The Jews are not simply Judaized central Europeans; they are central-Europeanized Jews.

It has been remarked by some anthropologists that the Jews look “Armenoid/⁵ and that this Armenoid appearance must be due either to Hittite admixture or to a sojourn in Asia Minor before their arrival in Europe. This remark implies a misunderstanding of Jewish history as well as of the nature of the Armenoid race. Many Ashkenazic Jews, it is true, possess the combination of a brachycephalic head with a narrow face and convex nose, but there is not enough Alpine in the Jewish body to make this Dinaricization prevalent or standard. It is found among blond as well as brunet Jews, and is an individual rather than a group phenomenon.

Individual central European Jews vary greatly in facial and cranial appearance. Among them may be picked out without trouble apparently pure Palestinian types; the convex-nosed, long-faced sub-type, which is frequently found among Sephardim, and is especially known to the world through the faces of Disraeli and Lord Reading in England, is on the whole rare among Ashkenazim; the straight-nosed, more typically Medi­terranean form, such as is represented by the actors A1 Jolson and Eddie Cantor, is much commoner. Leon Trotsky represents a brachycephalic, Dinaricized Jewish type, and Albert Einstein is a good example of another.

Among Russian Jews it is not difficult to select individuals with large malars, broad, snubbed noses, and high alveolar segments of the upper face, who are as nearly mongoloid 'as many Volga Finns. Among German Jews may be found individuals who are to all purposes Nordic, and others who belong to the Borreby race, which is the most numerous single type among Gentiles in Germany. Alpine Jews are commoner than the inci­dence of Alpines in central and eastern Europe would perhaps warrant, and some of their Alpinism must have been derived from their sojourn in France and in the Rhinelands before their march eastward across central Europe.

On historical grounds it is very likely that the ancestors of the Ashken­azim mixed more with Gentiles in western Europe, before the time of the first Crusade, than their more recent forebears have in Slavic countries. The heavy beard growth, the abundance of the body hair, and the wavy