THE RACES OF EUROPE

moderately thick, upturned tip. The hair was brown and wavy, fre­quently rufous, of medium abundance on beard and body; the eyes light-mixed blue. The skin was typically inclined to freckling, and very fair.

In contrast to this* type, the Iron Age Keltic people were slightly shorter, and usually slender in bodily build, with finer bones; they were narrower in head and face diameters, with a more retreating forehead, a higher- bridged, more convex-profiled nose with a thin, less frequently everted tip; the mouth was smaller, and the mandible much shallower and nar­rower, the chin of more moderate dimensions. The hair was straight or wavy, brown or light brown in color, and the eyes typically blue.

It is impossible at present to define with equal clarity the two minor types; the Atlanto-Mediterranean element, if it were brown eyed and black haired, has completely lost its original pigment qualities through mixture. Yet“Mediterranean” types can be isolated in Ireland, and one may perhaps ascribe to them the occurrence of prognathism and some of the curly hair. If we grant that the eye color of the Megalithic people may have borne the germ of blondism, and may have changed, through mixture and other causes, to mixed and blue, then there are Megalithic descendants in Ireland who can easily be recognized. The planoccipital, brachycephalic, aquiline-nosed Dinaric element, if it were ever brunet, must also have lost its original pigment association; today it is frequently red haired.

2. Great britain, general survey

In comparison with Ireland, the larger and more populous island of Great Britain is more varied in topography and climate, and possesses a much greater regional variability in population. The materials which serve to describe the living British, while only partly adequate, neverthe­less suffice to show that there are several important racial differences between them and the Irish. In the first place, none of the regionally differentiated British groups shows as great a reemergence of the northern Briinn race as that in Ireland. In the second, brunet Mediterraneans, difficult to isolate in Ireland, have survived or reemerged in large numbers in Wales and in the manufacturing districts of the Midlands and of Scot­land. In the third place, the numerically predominant racial element in the British population is Nordic, with the Keltic Iron Age variety more important than the Anglo-Saxon or Germanic form. Brachycephals of Bronze Age inspiration are not uncommon as individuals, but have no large modern area of concentration.

In studying the modern British, let us first run over the whole island in a general way in a few characters, and then concentrate upon some

385

of the more distinctive local groups which seem to possess racial individ­ualities of their own.

The pigmentation of the British has, in no large or significant series, been studied by means of standard charts. In regard to skin color, little is known from the statistical standpoint, except that it is characteristically fair,¹⁵ and apparently as light as that of the Irish in most cases,¹⁶ although in certain relatively brunet regions, such as Devonshire, Cornwall, Wales, and parts of western Scotland, there are without doubt darker-skinned minorities. The Irish tendency to freckling is also common in Great Britain, especially among the Scotch, who without doubt equal the Irish in this respect.¹⁷ More characteristic of British skin than freckling, even, is its tendency to become red when constantly exposed to the air. This extreme vascularity, although without doubt partly climatic, must be racial to a certain extent, since it is accompanied by a physiological in­ability to tan.

Taking Great Britain as a whole, the hair color of its inhabitants is very similar to that of the Irish, except that the British have more light brown, and the Irish more dark brown, shades. In this comparison, England, including Wales, is nearly identical with Scotland. Both the English and the Scotch have as much red hair as the Irish, while the Welsh have more; both the Scotch and the Irish have somewhat higher incre­ments of black hair than England with Wales; and if Wales is studied separately, England emerges as the lightest haired of the four major divi­sions of the British Isles, and Wales as the darkest.¹⁸

The regional distribution of hair color in Great Britain ¹⁹ closely follows

15. Luschan, F. von, and Emma von, ZFE, vol. 46, 1914, pp. 58-80. This study con­tains observations on 84 British scientists, taken with the von Luschan table.

16. Hooton, E. A., in data on many thousands of American prison inmates, finds prisoners of British birth to be as fair skinned as Irish and Scandinavian prisoners. Hooton, E. A., The American Criminal.

17. From Hooton’s criminal material.

18. This comparison is based largely upon fhe study of 30,000 soldiers born in the British Isles, who served in the Union Army during the American Civil War, and upon a further study of 12,000 who served in the American Expeditionary Forces during the World War.

Gould, B. A., Investigations in the Military and Anthropological Statistics of American Soldiers.

Davenport, C. B., and Love, A. G., Army Anthropometry.

15. Based upon numerous studies, including especially the Report of the Anthropo­metric Committee, and the works of Beddoe, Fleure, and Parsons. A limited bibliog­raphy of general works on Great Britain which include hair color studies, and of specific works on England and Wales, follows:

Anonymous, Report of the Anthropometric Committee, RBAA, Sess. 49, 1880, pp. 175- 209.

Anonymous, Final Report of the Anthropometric Committee, London, 1883.

Beddoe, J., The Races of Britain; The Physical Anthropology of the Isle of Man; On the North Settlements of West Saxons; JRAI, vol. 27, T898, pp. 164-170; vol. 34, 1904, pp. 92-

THE RACES OF EUROPE

that of total pigmentation as shown on Map 8. In England, black hair ranges from nearly 0 to 10 per cent, except in Devonshire and Corn­wall, where it reaches a maximum of 20 per cent in the region of Pen­zance. Along the eastern coast it is extremely rare, and the average for the country is probably between 4 per cent and 5 per cent. Dark brown hair accounts for 14 per cent to 43 per cent of the population in the different parts of England. In general, it runs below 30 per cent in the regions of intensive Saxon and Danish occupation—that is, Lincoln­shire, Norfolk, Suffolk, and Yorkshire—while it averages above 30 per cent in the west, and has a mean of approximately 40 per cent in Corn­wall. Brown hair, a light-to-intermediate hue, ranges from 57 per cent to 24 per cent, and has a distribution precisely opposite to that of dark brown hair, which may be considered intermediate-to-dark. On the whole brown is more prevalent than dark brown, and the blond element is considerably more important than the brunet one among the English. Fair hair, representing golden, ashen, and also light brown hues, varies from 5 per cent to 47 per cent. Well over 25 per cent is typical of the North Sea coast, while in Cornwall it runs from 10 per cent to 15 per cent. Among English blonds, golden hair is far commoner than the ashen variety, but ash-blondism is by no means absent, nor as rare as in Ireland.

99; MASL, vol. 2, 1866, pp. 37-45, 348-357; AR, vol. 1, 1863, pp. 310-312; RBAA, vol. 41, 1872, p. 147.

Bradbrooke, W., and Parsons, F. G., JRAI, vol. 52, 1922, pp. 113-126.

Davies, E., and Fleure, H. J., JRAI, vol. 46, 1936, pp. 129-188.

Dunlop, A., JRAI, vol. 22, 1893, pp. 335-345.

Eickstedt, E. von, ZFRK, vol. 1, 1935, pp. 19-64.

Fleming, R. M., Man, vol. 22, 1922, pp. 69-75.

Fleure, H, J., The Races of England and Wales.

Fleure, H. J., and James, T. C., JRAI, vol. 46, 1916, pp. 35-154; RBAA, vol. 80, 1910-11, pp. 726-727.

Flower, W. H., Garson, J. G., Bloxam, G. W., Haddon, A. C., and Smith, W., RBAA, vol. 63, 1893-94, pp. 654,661.

Flower, W. H., Garson, J. G., Bloxam, G. W., Haddon, A. C., and Windle, B., RBAA, vol. 64, 1895, pp. 444-453.

Fox, A. L., JRAI, vol. 6, 1887, pp. 443-457.

Freire-Marecco, B., Man, vol. 9, 1909, pp. 99-108.

Goring, C., The English Convict.

Griinbaum, O. F. F., RBAA, vol. 67, 1898, pp. 505-506.

Haddon, A. C., RBAA, pp. 503-504.

Muffang, M. H., Anth, vol. 10, 1899, pp. 21-41.

Moore, A. W., and Beddoe, J., JRAI, vol. 27, 1897, pp. 104-130.

Parsons, F. G., JRAI, vol. 50, 1920, pp. 159-182.

Pearson, K., and Tippett, L. H. C., Biometrika, vol. 16, 1924, pp. 118-138.

Pitt-Rivers, A. H. L., JRAI, vol. 11, 1882, pp. 455-471.

Shrubsall, F. C., RSBH, vol.-39.

Taylor, J. J., RBAA, vol. 67, 1898, pp. 507-510.

Walk, C. S., TYNU, 1886.

387

In Wales, 10 per cent of the total have black hair, and only 8 per cent are fair in the English sense. Dark brown predominates over medium brown, while red, which averages 5 per cent, runs as high as 9 per cent in small localities. Beddoe finds as much as 86 to 89 per cent of black and dark brown hair in such places as Newquay and Denbighshire Upland. On the whole, Wales, in accordance with its mountainous character and its general preservation of ancient cultural traits, is a region of strong local variability, which manifests itself particularly in pigmentation.

In Scotland, the systematic study of 7000 adult males and of half a million schoolchildren²⁰ makes our knowledge of the regional distribution of hair color relatively complete. Black hair ranges among adults from 0 to 8 per cent -by counties, but nowhere attains the figures observed in Cornwall, Devonshire, and Wales. Dark brown hair account^ for 38 per cent of the population; the medium to light brown shade, with 42 per cent, is the most numerous; fair hair runs to 11 per cent, and red to 5 per cent.

Tocher finds that jet black hair is commoner in the western highlands than elsewhere, and is statistically correlated with the greatest survival of Gaelic speech. But since Gaelic was brought from Ireland in the Christian era, and the Goidelic Kelts of Ireland were not notably black haired, this brunet condition must be due to an earlier racial element. That black hair and Keltic speech both survive in Wales, furthermore, does not mean that the two were originally associated, for Kymric had been spoken in Wales only a few hundred years before the Saxons came. The western lowland counties of Scotland, which include the ancient Kymric kingdom of Strathclyde, are no darker in hair color than the rest of Scotland.

The eastern Scottish coast, from Caithness to Berwick, shows little of this black hair, and in general the areas of both Pictish and Saxon con­centration are quite deficient in it. This finding should dispel the idea

²⁰ See especially the works of Tocher and of Gray in the following limited bibliogra­phy of works on Scotland which include hair color data.

Beddoe, J., JRAI, vol. 38, 1908, pp. 212-220.

Cooper,}., RBAA, vol. 67, 1898, p. 507.

Duncan, J. W._f RBAA, p. 506.

Forbes, A., RBAA, p. 506.

Gray, J., RBAA, vol. 69, 1899-1900, pp. 874-875; JRAI, vol. 30, 1900, pp. 104-124; vol. 37, 1907, pp. 375-401.

Gray, J., and Tocher, J. F., The Ethnology of Buchan; JRAI, vol. 30, 1900, pp. 86-88.

Gregor, W., RBAA, vol. 67, 1898, pp. 500-502.

Macleay, K. S., RBAA, p. 507.

Reid, R. W., and Mulligan, J. H., JRAI, vol. 54, 1924, pp. 300-313.

Smith, J., and Gardiner, J. B., RBAA, vol. 67, 1898, p. 507.

Teit, J. A., and Parsons, F. G., JRAI, vol. 53, 1923, pp. 473-483.

Tocher, J. F., TBFC, 1897, pp. 1-16; Biometrika, vol. 5, 1906-07, pp. 298-350; vol. 6, 1908-09, pp. 129-234; HTR, Edenburgh and London, vols. 2 and 3, 1924.

THE RACES OF EUROPE

that the Piets were a notably brunet people. Fair hair is commonest in the east, in both highlands and lowlands, and is especially prevalent in the very northeastern corner, and in the Orkneys and Shetlands, where much of the blood is Scandinavian.

In the cities of Scotland some important facts in regard to hair color have been uncovered. While Edinburgh and Aberdeen have relatively fair populations, and reflect the pigment character of the populations around them, Glasgow, which is not only the largest city in Scotland but also the second largest in the British Isles, is notable for a heavy con­centration of dark brown hair, which seems distinctive not only of the city itself but also of the thickly settled manufacturing district which surrounds it. Tocher, who has made an exhaustive study of the city by sectioi^g, finds that while dark hair is commonest in the poorer districts and in the portions of the city which contain the largest ratio of foreign population, it cannot be entirely attributed to foreign blood, which is in the minority everywhere.

In the Glasgow district, as in the Midlands, slum conditions and factory existence have brought about a reemergence of the older Mediterranean element in the population, submerged since the Neolithic; although pub­lished evidence from the English Midlands which will confirm this is as yet lacking, there can be no doubt of the general accuracy of this con­clusion. The study of other criteria from Scotland will confirm it in regard to the Glasgow district.

Whereas the British are on the whole lighter haired than the Irish, they are at the same time darker eyed. The difference is not, however, a great one, and in both England and Scotland blue and light-mixed eyes are in the majority.²¹ Since the pigment division of Great Britain runs north and south, the total eye color classes of both Scotland and England-plus-Wales are nearly identical, and regional variations follow those of hair color.

In only one published British series was a Martin eye color chart used— that of von Luschan’s British scientists, a highly selected group of 84 men returning from a scientific congress in Australia.²² Of this group, which included Charles Darwin the younger, 29.8 per cent had pure light eyes (Martin #15-16); 27.4 per cent light-mixed eyes (Martin #12-14); 2.4 per cent pure dark eyes (Martin #1-4); while the remaining 40.4 per cent had medium- or dark-mixed irises. According to most European standards the total of lights would be considered 57 per cent. This small series is as

²¹ Sources same as for skin color and hair color, and also:

Galton, E., JRAI, vol. 28, 1889, pp. 420-430.

Pitt-Rivers, Garson, and Bloxam, RBAA, vol. 59, 1889-90, pp. 423-435.

²² Luschan, Felix and Emma von, ZFE, vol. 46, 1914, pp. 58-80.

389

light eyed as some of the Norwegian coastal groups, but not as light as most of Scandinavia, or as Ireland.

In the large, regional studies of British eye color, 62 per cent of English are called light eyed, and 34 per cent dark. On this basis the fishermen of the English North Sea coast have as much as 90 per cent of light eyes, and, at the same time, the Cornish run as low as 55 per cent. Other ratios of 55 per cent to 60 per cent occur in towns and cities scattered through­out England, and seem typical of urban populations. The Cornish, who are the darkest eyed of the English, are still predominantly a light-mixed- eyed people, as are the English as a whole. No typically brunet population may be found in England.

Wales, however, is notably darker eyed. Out of Beddoe’s series of 3000, 34 per cent are called brown eyed, 15 per cent mixed, and 51 per cent light. Although the light-eyed element is still the more numerous in the principality as a whole, it is possible to distinguish typically dark-eyed districts. Fleure found between 60 per cent and 70 per cent of “dark” eyes in Llandyssul, Newquay, and Denbighshire Upland, and Beddoe found the same among the Abergavenny country people, among the townsmen of Brecon, and in Merthyr and TafFvale. These are all isolated regions, and the antiquity of dark eye color in Wales is evident.

In Scotland, 32 per cent of adult males have pure light eyes, 48 per cent are called mixed, and 20 per cent dark. The latter category probably includes a number of dark-mixed iris patterns. Blue eyes are commonest in the north and south of Scotland, and gray eyes appear in numbers in the Shetlands and Orkneys, under Scandinavian inspiration. Mixed eyes are typical of east central Scotland, while brown eyes reach their highest ratio in the Glasgow region, among the industrial population. The area of Gaelic speech, which Tocher found associated with an excess of dark hair, is also notably blue eyed.

The general pigment character of Great Britain, as shown on Map 8, is predominantly light mixed. Fair, vascular skin, medium brown hair, an excess of rufosity and freckling, and blue or light-mixed eyes are typical of the British as a whole. This pigment combination without doubt reflects the coloring of the Iron Age Kelts, who have made the greatest single contribution to the present British population. Blondism of Scandinavian intensity, reflecting Saxon and Danish influence, is characteristic of the whole eastern coast of England and Scotland, while a strong brunet sur­vival in Cornwall and Wales indicates the presence of a pre-Keltic pop­ulation of considerable intensity. The industrial revolution, which has fostered dense under-privileged populations in the Midlands and on the Clyde, has enormously increased, by some selective process, the darker- haired and darker-eyed elements in Britain. In general, differences in

THE RACES OF EUROPE

social level and in occupation reflect racial differences, which show them­selves to a certain extent in pigmentation. The upper social strata, being on the whole blonder, follow the pigment pattern of the Saxons, Danes, and Normans. This differentiation may well have been even stronger in the Middle Ages, when social lines were more strictly and overtly drawn than today. The Englishman who travels abroad and is seen by foreigners, and the one whose photograph frequently appears in the London Illustrated News, is more likely to be blond than the general run of his more obscure compatriots who stay at home, and whose faces are publicly depicted only when they have committed crimes.

The regional variations of stature in Great Britain may be observed with sufficient accuracy on Map 5. The mean for the whole island is approximately 172 cm.,²³ which is comparable to Ireland, and to Nor­way and Sweden. On the whole, Scotland is taller than England, and England taller than Wales. The blond Saxon-Danish strip of country along the North Sea shore, from Scotland through Suffolk, is the tallest part of England, as tall as most of Scotland; while tlie counties bordering on the Thames estuary and the Channel are taller than those immediately inland. In western England and in Wales, shorter stature is not regionally associated with the most brunet pigmentation. Cornishmen are the tallest of the British west of Berkshire, while the shortest stature in Britain by counties is found, not in the brunet districts of central Wales, but in the mining country of south Wales, in the counties bordering the inner section of the Bristol Channel, in Shropshire and Hereford, and in the counties immediately adjoining London. In no county, however, does the mean fall below 168 cm. although in individual villages in Wales it is as low as

²³ References to stature may be found in most of the previously noted works referred to in this section. In addition to these, the following list may be mentioned:

Anonymous, RBAA, vol. 48, 1879, pp. 152-155; vol. 51, 1882, pp. 225-272.

Beddoe, J., Anth, vol. 5, 1894, pp. 513-529, 658-673.

Cripps, L., Greenwood, R., and Newbold, E. M., Biometrika, vol. 14, 1922-23, pp. 316-336.

Downes, R. M., JAPL, vol. 48, 1914, pp. 299-309.

Elderton, E. M., Biometrika, vol. 21, 1929, pp. 429-430.

Fleure, H. J., JRAI, vol. 50, 1920, pp. 12-40.

Fox, A. L., JRAI, vol. 5, 1875, pp. 101-106.

Greenwood, R., Thompson, C. M., and Woods, H. M., Biometrika, vol. 17, 1925, pp. 142-158.

MacDonnell, W. R., Biometrika, vol. 1, 1901-02, pp. 177-227.

Marshall, J., JAPL, vol. 26, 1892, pp. 445-500.

Peate, I. C., JRAI, vol. 55, 1925, pp. 58-72.

Pitt-Rivers, Garson, and Bloxam, RBAA, vol. 60, 1890-91, pp. 549-552.

Reid, R. W., and Mulligan, J. H., JRAI, vol. 46, 1912, pp. 1-10; vol. 54, 1924, pp. 287-300.

Schuster, E., Biometrika, vol. 8, 1911-12, pp. 40-51.

Venn, J., JRAI, vol. 18, 1888, pp. 140-154.

391

165 cm.²⁴ In Scotland a belt of relatively short stature running from 169 cm. to 171 cm. stretches across the country diagonally from the Clyde to the Forth, and includes the Glasgow industrial area.

The mean stature of England and Wales appears to have increased from about 170 cm. in 1865, to its present level of over 172 cm.²⁵ At the same time, that of the Scotch may have shrunk in certain areas, although Scotland as a whole has probably increased.²⁶ The general British in­crease may be traced in different social classes as well as in regional pop­ulations. Cambridge students in 1888 had a mean stature of 175 cm., Oxford, in 1911, of 177 cm. During the first quarter of the present cen­tury, English convicts rose from 166 cm. to 168 cm.

In England as in Sweden, social and occupational differences in stature are greater than regional differences.²⁷ As early as 1880, the mean for the nobility and for professional men and financial leaders was 174.4 cm.; between them and the next tallest group, clerks and shopkeepers, was a drop to 172.6 cm.; farmers and road workers followed with 171.5 cm.; factory workers, miners, laborers in general, and seamen all had occupa­tional means of under 170 cm., while convicts, at the bottom of the list, averaged only 166 cm. Among Goring’s English convicts, those coming from destitute family surroundings had a mean stature of 161 cm., those from well-to-do families 167.7 cm., with others graded between.²⁸

The English are, on the whole, equal in weight to the Irish, or slightly lighter, and show as great a class differentiation in this character as in stature. Oxford and Cambridge students, who are for the most part under 25 years of age, have means of 155 lbs., while prison inmates vary from 132 to 154 lbs. in accordance with differences in home environment. Heavy weights are common on the east coast, as at Flamborough, York­shire, where a mean of 168 lbs. has been recorded; in Leeds and in Cardiff the mean is 156 lbs. The bodily proportions of English and Scotch are on the whole indicative of a linear to somatic, or “athletic,” constitutional form. The relative span is as a rule around 102 and 103, comparable to the Nordic means for eastern Norway and Sweden. These low span ratios are due not to narrow shoulders but to relatively short arms. The relative sitting heights of 52 to 53 are slightly shorter than those of the Irish, and again similar to those of Scandinavian Nordics. The hips are moderate

24. Eickstedt, E. von, ZFRK, vol. 1, #1, 1935, pp. 19-64.

25. Using the two American army figures as end points, and the British Association report for 1883.

26. The 1883 British survey gives a mean of 174.6 cm. for 1304 Scotsmen; Tocher, 40 years later, found a mean of 171.5 cm. for a series of 3474. The United States Army figures for the Civil War are: 4822 Scotch, Stature = 171.5 cm.; World War, 2074 Scotch, Stature = 172.5 cm.

27. Roberts, C., Manual of Anthropometry.

28. Goring, C., The English Convict.

THE RACES OF EUROPE

for Europeans, with bi-iliac means of 28-30 cm., and narrow in proportion to the shoulder breadths.

Since the Mesolithic the British have possessed, even during the Bronze Age, heads of unusual length. Hence it is not surprising to find that the modern English, Welsh, and Scotch exceed most European groups in this respect. Only in western Norway, Iceland, and Ireland can they be equalled. The mean for each of the three British groups is approximately 195 mm.²⁹ In England most of the differences known are social rather than geographical; university students and men of science have means ranging from 196 mm. to 199 mm., while criminal means run as low as 191 mm. In Wales the head length varies regionally from 192 mm. in Montgomeryshire to 198 and 199 mm. in Cardiganshire and Cardiff. Extreme lengths which approach the 200 mm. mark are mostly confined to isolated, rural groups. In Scotland the greatest lengths appear in the far north, and the least in the industrial trough from the Clyde to the Forth.

For all its length the English head is not especially narrow, since a general mean for the country would approximate 153 to 154 mm. In Wales the narrower mean of 152 mm. is found for the entire principality. Although in some parts of Wales the heads are as broad as in England, in others, such as Montgomeryshire and Carmathen, the means fall to 148 and 149 mm. In Scotland a total mean of about 152 mm. applies to the civil population,³⁰ but there is a difference of 4.4 mm. between the means for Aberdeen and Banffshire (153 mm.), at one extreme, and that for Dumbarton (148 mm.) at the other. In general, the northern Scottish counties are broader headed than the industrial districts and the low­lands.

As Ripley stated some forty years ago, the cephalic index is one of the least variable physical traits in the British Isles. England, Scotland, and Wales are all fundamentally mesocephalic, and no regional mean falls below 76 or rises above 80. On the whole, Great Britain is narrower headed than Ireland, and the British resemble the eastern Irish and the Irish Protestants in this respect. As Map 6 shows, the lowest cephalic indices are to be found in Wales and in the Midlands, and also in the lowlands and industrial districts of Scotland, while the highest occur in

89. Many of the preceding references contain data on head length, head breadth, and the cephalic index. The following may be added:

Beddoe, J., Anth, vol. 5, 1894, pp. 658-673.

Parsons, F. G., Man, vol. 22, 1922, pp. 19-23.

Gladstone, R. J., JAPL, vol. 37, 1903, pp. 333-346; vol. 51, 1921, pp. 343-369.

Griffiths, G. B., Biometrika, vol. 4, 1904, pp. 60-62.

80. Tocher, J. F., 1924. Tocher’s means for soldiers are over a millimeter less than for the civil population, and the same is true in regard to head length. His total Scotch means for soldiers are: Head Length = 193.0 mm., Head Breadth = 150.3 mm.

393

the north of Scotland, where a minor survival of Bronze Age brachy­cephaly is suggested. High indices in the Orkneys and Shetlands may rather imply the settlement of Vikings from southwestern Norway.

Measurements on the head height and on the facial dimensions of British are not numerous enough or sufficiently standardized to be satis­factory. Minimum frontal means range from 105 to 110 mm.; the bizy­gomatic diameter is narrow (136-137 mm.) among criminals, broad (144 mm.) among scientists; in Wales local means of 139 and 140 mm. are found, in the north of Scotland, of 140-142 mm. Bigonials follow the minimum frontal, and range from 105 to 109 mm. These breadth dimen­sions fall within Norwegian and Irish ranges, and seem for the most part essentially Nordic. Both foreheads and jaws are too broad for most Med­iterraneans. Face heights of 122 to 126 mm. confirm this Nordic associa­tion. The noses are longer and narrower than those of the Irish, as a rule, and nasal indices of 62 to 65 are comparable to those in Scandinavia. There seem to be no perceptible regional variations in this respect, as far as one can tell from available data.

The results of this extremely unsatisfactory survey of the facial charac­ters of the English, Welsh, and Scotch are that all three seem to be very much the same; the face is typically moderate in width, and of more than average European length. The forehead and jaw diameters are relatively great, and give to the face a parallel-sided appearance. The nose is leptorrhine and of normal European dimensions. The facial di­mensions are on the whole Nordic, and fall between Irish and eastern Norwegian means.

If metrical constants aside from stature, length, and head breadth are scarce, observational statistics on the British are even less satisfactory.³¹ Like the Irish, the British appear normally equipped for Europeans in body hair and in degree of beard development. In hair form, the ma­jority are usually recorded as straight, the rest mostly as wavy; on the whole the English, at least, are probably straighter haired than the Irish. Although the Silures of Wales were said by the Romans to have had curly hair, there is no evidence from Wales to show that this hair form is es­pecially common. On the whole the British hair is finer in texture than that of many Europeans.

Among the English, Welsh, and Scotch internal and median eyefolds are very uncommon, while external folds are not infrequent. Thick eye­brows, characteristic of the Irish, are also found among the Scotch, es­pecially in old age. Concurrency of the eyebrows is found in only 30 to

80. Almost entirely limited to Hooton’s British-born convicts in American jails, Gor- ing’s convicts, and a series of 32 Shetland Islanders emigrating to Canada. (Teit, J. A., and Parsons, F. G., JRAI, vol. 53, 1923, pp/473-483.)