THE RAGES OF EUROPE

Egyptians, however, rarely colored the wall paintings of their women purely white; except in the case of goddesses and such rare mortals as Hetep Heres II, the usual color is a pinkish yellow.

The facial features of the Cretans, if one discounts the conventions of the artists, were purely Mediterranean; the straight, prominent nose, with its high root, the smooth profile of the forehead, and the lightness of the mandible are all clearly shown. The hair form is wavy or lightly curled, and the beard, usually clean shaven, was apparently scanty. A variant racial type, which may indicate an Alpine element similar to that found in Greece (see following section), is seen in a broad-faced fofm, associated with a lateral bodily habitus, and an occasional snub nose. Although the physical type of the Cretans has changed somewhat since the fall of the Minoan power, the features of the happy and athletic people shown on the frescoes at Knossus, and the preoccupied frown of the snake goddess, are still familiar to us, for they reflect the common heritage of the Mediter­ranean race elsewhere.

Most of the Early Minoan skulls belong to the Mediterranean type just described, which shows a blending between the usual Neolithic variety and the convex-nosed type prevalent in the Near East. In some sites, as at Hagios Nikolas and Patema, the population was exclusively Mediter­ranean. In others, a few brachycephalic examples occur, and these ap­parently belong to the same type found at Cyprus.

In the later Minoan periods the brachycephals increased in numbers, but never formed more than a minor element in the population, probably not more than a sixth at most. Since 70 per cent of the population of Cy­prus may have belonged to this type, the Cretans must have kept them­selves fairly free from eastern admixture after the initial establishment of their national culture and power. At the time of the Dorian invasions, as today, the Cretans were still predominantly Mediterranean.

Toward the end of the Early Minoan period, somewhat before 2100 B.C., strong Cycladic influences entered Crete, and it is possible that some of the Middle and Late Minoan skulls of unusual size and Megalithic con­formation may be derived from this movement. The present population of Crete belongs largely to a tall Mediterranean type, which may partially antedate the Dorian arrival.¹⁸

4. The greeks

The question of the origin of the Greeks has long been an apparently insoluble enigma. For centuries, before the development of archaeology

¹⁸ Our data on which is based the assumption that all Cretans were of short stature are not numerous. The Philistines, presumably Cretan relatives in Palestine, are thought to have been tall, while some of the Mycenaeans in Greece were of large stature.

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as a scientific discipline, history began with Herodotus, and Homer was a small window permitting tantalizing glimpses into the most distant past. In recent years, however, great advances have been made toward the solution of this problem, by the linguistic and historical researches of Myres,¹⁹ and by the publication of skeletal material by Fiirst and Kou- maris.

The historical reconstruction may be briefly summarized as follows: During the Neolithic, Greece was culturally connected with North Africa and the rest of the Mediterranean basin. The one skull which is known is of normal Mediterranean racial type. In the early Metal Age, immi­grants from the Cycladic islands, of Asia Minor origin, introduced copper to Greece, with the mother goddess cult, and settled on either side of the Isthmus of Corinth. In the meanwhile, Painted Pottery people of Danu­bian cultural origin came down to Greece from the north, driven by Corded people. Thus, by 2000 B.C., there were, from the cultural stand­point, three elements in the Greek population: (a) local Neolithic Medi­terranean; (b) Danubian from the north; (c) Cycladic people of eventual Asia Minor origin.

Between 2000 b.c. and the period of Homer, Greece was invaded three times more; (a) by Corded people (Myres calls them “Kurgan” people), who came from the north about 1900 B.C., and who, Myres thinks,²⁰ may have brought the Indo-European basis of Hellenic speech; (b) by Minoans from Crete, who founded the “long genealogies”; dynasties of rulers at Thebes, Athens, Mycenae, and elsewhere. Most of these entered Greece about 1400 B.C., although some may have dated back to 1700 B.C.; (c) by “divine born” foreigners, such as Atreus, Pelops, etc., who came from across the Aegean in ships, learned Greek, usurped thrones, and married the daughters of the kings of Minoan ancestry.

These foreigners, whom Myres likens to the Normans in English history, begat the heroes of the Trojan war. The war itself reflects the close re­lationship between these adventurers and Priam’s Troy. In the wars, the Homeric heroes formed the nuclei of small groups of “companions”; these were homeless adventurers, refugees, and poor relatives, who had attached themselves to the heroes in a close personal bond. The bulk of the Greek army was composed of local conscripts from the various king­doms of Greece, who were of a different ethnic origin and who, like Thersites, had no especial interest in destroying Troy.

The post-Homeric and Iron Age Dorians, long regarded as fresh in­vaders from the north were, according to Myres’s reconstruction, but

¹⁹ Myres, J. L., op. cit., 1930.

²⁰ In view of evidence to be presented later, it is more likely that the Danubians brought it (Chapter VI).

THE RACES OF EUROPE

Greek speakers who had been isolated in the Mt. Olympus region by the warlike activities of the Thebans, and who had obtained iron from Asia Minor.

The Greeks of the great period of Athenian civilization were thus the product of much mixture from diverse ethnic sources, as the study of the origin of the Greek language also reveals.

The skeletal record can, in part, supplement the evidence of recon­structed history. Six skulls from Hagias Kosmas near Athens represent the period of amalgamation of Neolithic Mediterranean, Danubian, and Cycladic elements, between 2500 and 2200 b.c.²¹ Three are dolicho­cephalic, one mesocephalic, and two brachycephalic. The faces of all are narrow, the noses leptorrhine, the orbits high. One may conclude that a Cretan type of Mediterranean and the Cypriote Dinaric form were both present.

Twenty-five Mid-Helladic crania represent the period after the arrival of the Corded or ^£tKurgan’⁵ folk from the north, and during the seizure of power by the Minoan conquerors from Crete.²² Of these, twenty-three come from Asine, and two from Mycenae. Needless to say, the population of this time was very mixed. Only two skulls are brachycephalic; they are both male, and both associated with very short stature. One is of medium size, high-vaulted, and narrow-nosed and narrow-faced; the other extremely broad-faced and chamaerrhine. They seem to represent two different broad-headed types, both of which can probably be found in Greece today.

The long heads are not of uniform type; some, with large vaults and strong browridges, with deep nasion depressions, remind one of the larger varieties of Neolithic dolichocephals, of both Long Barrow and Corded types; and Fiirst feels that a number of them are very similar to the Late Neolithic crania from Scandinavia, of about equal age. Needless to say, both Corded and Megalithic people were present in Denmark and Sweden at about this time.

The rest of the long-headed crania, which are probably more truly representative of the bulk of the Mid-Helladic population, are of the slight- browed, high-nosed type familiar in Crete and Asia Minor during the same epoch. They, too, are short statured, while the few examples of the larger-headed variety are, as is expected, taller. It is impossible, with present data, to isolate from the main body of these crania a Danubian type, although the latter may well have been present.

Forty-one Late Helladic skulls, dated between 1500 and 1200 B.C., and coming likewise from Argolis, may include those of some of the “divine-

21. Koumaris, J., RA, vol. 44, 1934, pp. 248-251.

22. Fiirst, C. M., LUA, N. F., vol. 26, #8, 1930; VHPA, vol. 4, 1930, pp. 3-14.

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born” invaders. Among these, one-fifth are brachycephalic, and appar­ently largely of the Cypriote Dinaric type. Of the long-headed skulls, a large number belongs now to the larger, more heavily marked varieties, and fewer to the smaller Mediterranean. The similarity to the northern types, and especially to the Corded, is even stronger than before. This increase in a non-Minoan direction may perhaps be attributed to the arrival of the ancestors of Homer’s heroes.

This survey carries us through the Bronze Age. The racial history of Greece in full classical time is not as well documented as that of the periods just studied. Until the inception of the slave trade ²³ in Athens and other centers of manufacture and export, there can, however, have been little population change. In Argolis, the Mediterranean racial element is the only one clearly shown in six proto-geometric and “Hellenic” crania.²⁴ According to Koumaris’s compilation of cranial indices,²⁵ mesocephaly reigned everywhere in Greece during the classical period, and into Hellen­istic and Roman times. The mean index for Athens in the great period was 75.6, on 30 crania. This mesocephaly probably conceals the presence of a varied racial amalgam, with Mediterranean strains predominant. The Greek colonies in Asia Minor show much the same combination of types which we have seen in Greece itself.²⁶ Mixture with Asiatics must have been masked by the essential racial similarity of the populations on either side of the Aegean.

Greek literature and Greek art furnish an abundance of evidence as to the pigmentation and the characteristic facial features of the ancient inhabitants of Hellas. The Olympian gods, ancestors of the semi­divine heroes, were for the most part blond, with ivory skins and golden hair. Athene was gray eyed. Poseidon, however, was black haired. These gods were little different, if we may believe Homer, from their descendants the heroes, most of whom were white limbed and golden haired.²⁷

Odysseus’s herald Eurybates was dark skinned and curly haired; Achilles’s son Neoptolemos, perhaps by a brunet mother, was rufous. The Spartans were said to be blond, and in fifth-century Athens women bleached their hair with an herb which turned it golden yellow, in pur­suance of a blond ideal. Vase painters of the sixth to fourth centuries were able to distinguish blond and brunet color by conventional glazes, and

²³ Zaborowski, S., ARSI for 1912, 1913, pp. 597-608.

²⁴ Fiirst, G. M./LUA, vol. 26, #8, 1930, pp. 92-95.

²⁵ Koumaris, J., A CAP, 1931, pp. 218 seq.

²⁶ Schumacher, O., ZFMA, vol. 25, 1926, pp. 435-463.

Zaborowski, S., BSAP, ser. 4, vol. 3, 1881, pp. 234-238.

²⁷ Myres has conclusively demonstrated that the much disputed word f av9o$ actu­ally did mean “yellowish” or “sandy.” Pp. 192-194.

THE RACES OF EUROPE

applied this distinction to representations of living models as well as of heroes.

Greek terminology included words for blue and brown eyes, and for green ones, the color of an olive leaf, as well; in skin color it recognized rosy vascularity, a pallid hue resembling cream cheese or the skin of un­ripe apples, a honey color, and a deep brunet. To Phoenician merchants and tanned sailors of other nationalities, they gave the name “phoinix,” comparable to the color of a ripe date, or a bay horse. Thus within the Greek commonwealth as without it, all variations of pigmentation known to modern Europeans were probably to be found.

The Minoan convention of a high-rooted nose and a lithe body passed over into classical Greece as an artistic ideal, but the portrait busts of in­dividuals show that it cannot have been common in life. Villains, com­ical characters, satyrs, centaurs, giants, and all unpleasant people and those not to be admired, are often shown in sculpture and in vase painting as broad-faced, snub-nosed, and heavily bearded. Socrates, who belonged to this type, was maliciously compared to a satyr. This type may still be found in Greece, and is an ordinary Alpine. In the early skeletal remains it is represented by some of the brachycephalic crania.

On the whole, one is impressed, after looking at the portrait busts of Athenians, and the clay masks of Spartans, with their resemblance to pres- ent-day western Europeans. This resemblance becomes less marked in the art of the Byzantines, however, where modern near Eastern faces are more frequent; but the Byzantines lived mostly outside of Greece. As will be shown later (Chapter XII, section 14), the modern inhabitants of Greecc itself differ surprisingly little from their classical predecessors.

5. COPPER AND BRONZE IN THE WESTERN MEDITERRANEAN

In early Metal Age times influences from Crete and the Aegean, in­cluding those from the second city of Troy, spread westward to Sicily, Sardinia, Italy, and Spain, reaching also the smaller islands of the western Mediterranean. This maritime diffusion was probably carried by sea­farers in search of new sources of metal as well as markets for their products, and the traders and adventurers followed the old Megalithic routes. In the beginning the bringers of metal and the Late Megalithic colonists may well have been the same people.

The evidence of the racial composition of the Copper Age sailors who reached Italy and the Italian islands is simple and direct. The moderately tall, long-headed, and narrow-nosed Megalithic people who were im­planted, during the Late Neolithic, upon the smaller Mediterranean type which had preceded them, were followed, during the Aeneolithic, by others of the same kind, in the company of equally tall brachycephals. The latter

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resembled the people of the same Dinaric head form in Cyprus, Crete, and the Aegean, and without doubt formed a westward extension of the same movement.

In Sicily, which probably received metal earlier than most of the main­land or the islands farther west, Copper Age skulls of one series from Isnello²⁸ are all of general Mediterranean type, with the Megalithic variety predominant, as shown by excessive skull lengths, moderate vault heights, and narrow noses. The mean stature for twenty-four males, pre­sumably of this type, was 169 cm. Other Sicilian series, however, do in­clude brachycephals, as at Chiusella and Villafratti, with cranial indices ranging as high as 91.²⁹ These form, however, no more than one-third of the total Aeneolithic series from Sicily. In the true Bronze Age which followed, the incidence of these brachycephals increased.

In Sardinia a large series of sixty-three Copper Age skulls from Anghelu Ruju ³⁰ includes sixteen per cent, or ten individuals, of the new brachyce­phalic type, while the others resemble the long heads of Sicily, The group as a whole, irrespective of head form, was tall.⁸¹ The racial composition of Corsica during these periods is known only through the presence of one small, short-statured, long-headed female skeleton of either Neolithic or Aeneolithic age, and two brachycephalic crania from the Bronze Age.³²

It would be interesting to supplement this survey of the Italian islands with a study of the crania found in the elaborate burial chambers of Malta, of late Neolithic or early Metal Age date, but the excavators of these vaults, professional and otherwise, literally threw away what was probably the longest unified series of human crania ever found, numbering over seven thousand. We are told that these early Maltese were “Mediterra­neans,” and know little else about them.³³

On the mainland of Italy, Aeneolithic skeletons, which are found mostly on the western side of the central portion of the peninsula, belong to the same types found on the islands, but brachycephals are more abundant, being equal in number to the dolicho- and mesocephals.³⁴ Some of the Aeneolithic Italians of the Campagna and of Latium were very tall and large headed, with both mesocephalic and brachycephalic forms.⁸⁵ In

²⁸ Giuffrida Ruggeri, V., ASRA, vol. 11, 1905, pp. 56-103.

Zaborowski, S., BMSA, ser. 5, vol. 6,1905, pp. 196-199.

²⁹ Sergi, G., Crani Preistorici della Sicilia; Ewropa, pp. 270-289.

⁸⁰ Sergi, G,, Crani Antichi della Sardegna,

» Bruni, E., RDAR, vol. 26, 1924-25, pp. 235-250.

Bloch, A., BSAP, ser. 5, vol. 3, 1902, pp. 333-363.

³³ Tagliaferro, N., Man, vol. 11, 1911, pp. 147-150.

³⁴ Sabatini, A., RDAR, vol. 29, 1930-32; pp. 577-582.

Sergi, Europa, loc. cit,

Mochi, A., APA, vol. 42, 1912, pp. 330-347.

** Genna, G. E., PICP, 1932, pp. 60-64; RDAR, vol. 30, 1933-34, pp. 235-262.

THE RAGES OF EUROPE

Istria, at the head of the Adriatic, the Dinaric population which is dom­inant in that peninsula today had begun to arrive in the Copper and Bronze Ages,³⁶ judging by a series of six female crania which bear definite indications of this type, such as flattening of the occiput, narrow face, and projecting nasal bones. The new invaders may, therefore, have travelled up the Adriatic as well as over the Tyrrhenian Sea.⁸⁷

Reviewing the Italian material, on both metrical and morphological grounds we may determine that the round-headed racial type which came into the middle Mediterranean with the introduction of metal was of a general Dinaric character, and without doubt came from Asia Minor and the Aegean, where it first appeared in the last centuries of the third millennium b.c. Since the metal ages of the middle and western Mediter­ranean were later than those farther east, the chronological aspect of this theory presents no contradictions.

The Balearic Islands, Spain, and Portugal were, of course, the next stops in the westward spread of the metal-carrying seafarers through the Mediterranean. During the Early Copper Age in Spain, the distinctive Bell Beaker culture arose, which was soon to spread northward and east­ward into central Europe, and eventually to Britain, as an important racial movement; and another culture of equal local importance, that of Los Millares in Almeria, developed from eastern beginnings, with an em­phasis on the importation of Egyptian and Near Eastern materials, such as hippopotamus ivory, ostrich egg shells, and actual Near Eastern pottery.³⁸ The center of Early Bronze Age civilization again lay in Al­meria, with el Argar as the principal site, and began about 2000 b.c. During this period, which lasted until the Iron Age, there was again much Egyptian and Aegean influence.

Unfortunately, in the Iberian Peninsula, as elsewhere, the human record is not sufficient to support the complexity of the cultural. The craniologist cannot keep pace with the archaeologist; we cannot, without more numerous and more accurately correlated skeletons, tell in all cases what physical types went with each archaeological entity.

In the Balearic Islands, for a beginning, a few dolichocephalic crania, and one brachycephal, have been found in the talayots, or corbelled stone towers resembling the Sardinian nuraghes and Scottish brochs, which were first built in the Copper Age but which were used until the advent of iron.³⁹ Fifty-eight adult and five juvenile crania with long bones from a

86. Battaglia, R., PICP, 1932, pp. 57-60.

87. Unless these particular Dinarics came overland from Central Europe.

88. Childe, The Bronze Age, pp. 146-153.

89. Aranzadi, T. de, BAC, vol. 1, 1923, pp. 134-140.

Cameron, John, The Skeleton of British Neolithic Man.

Comas, Juan, Aportaciones al Estudio de la Prehistoria de Menorca.

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naveta> or long barrow, in Menorca, are said to have represented a homo­geneous group of people with short stature, long-heads (all cranial indices being under 75), low faces, prominent, aquiline noses, and projecting chins. The form of the scapulae and humeri of the males showed that they had developed great shoulder and arm muscles from slinging, the activity from which the islands derived their name. Three other skulls from an ossuary at Biniatap are brachycephalic.⁴⁰

In the Copper Age groups from mainland Spain and Portugal, the old long-headed types overwhelmingly prevail: out of one hundred and thirty- four crania, which represent all that could be assembled for this survey, only fifteen, or nine per cent, were brachycephalic.⁴¹ If one includes Ari&ge, Basses Pyrenees, and Aveyron in the south of France, twenty-eight crania may be added, of which only two are brachycephalic.⁴² One of these, from a site near the city of Narbonne, possesses all of the cranial and facial features typical of the Bronze Age brachycephals of Cyprus, Italy, and the Italian islands. In few of the Spanish instances are extensive details given, but it is probable that the brachycephalic crania there are also of the same type.

Many of the dolichocephalic Copper Age skulls are of Megalithic or Long Barrow type, while others are of a smaller, less rugged, Mesolithic or Neolithic Mediterranean variety. Among the mesocephalic crania, some may again be small Mediterraneans, while others, with larger vault dimensions, may in many instances be mixtures between Megalithic and brachycephalic types. The statures of the large dolichocephalic group average about 167 or 168 cm.; taller than most living Spaniards and as tall as the Neolithic Long Barrow population in Britain. Other dolicho­cephalic crania go with short stature, with a mean of about 160 cm. Un­fortunately, it is not possible to determine the approximate proportions of Megalithic and Mediterranean types, but the former seem to be at least one-half of the total.

A special development of the Copper Age in Spain was the Bell Beaker culture, about which more will be said later, since its chief influence in the racial sense fell upon areas in other parts of Europe. It is at present the general belief of archaeologists that the Bell Beaker culture arose in central

40. Cameron, John, PICP, 1932, p. 60.

41. Aguilo, Juan C., AMSE, vol. 1, 1922, pp. 23-36.

Aranzadi, T. de, BAC, vol. 3, 1925, pp. 177-206.

Barras de Aragon, F. de las, AMSE, vol. 12, 1933, pp. 90-123; vol. 9, 1930, pp. 59-64.

Batista i Roca, J. M., BAC, vol. 1, 1923, pp. 104-133.

Mendes-Correa, A. A., Os Povos Primitivos da Lusitania.

Tormo, I. Ballester, APL, vol. 1, 1928, pp. 44-53.

40. H616na, Th. and Ph., BAC, vol. 3, 1925, pp. 1-35.

Lapouge, G. V. de, Anth, vol. 2, 1891, pp. 681-695.

Vallois, H., Anth, vol. 37, 1927, pp. 277-303, 473-489.

THE RAGES OF EUROPE

Spain, shortly before 2000 B.C., from local beginnings.⁴³ A North African origin is rendered unlikely by the supposed absence of a Bronze Age south of Gibraltar, although recent work in Morocco has revealed some supposedly early metal.⁴⁴ Where Bell Beaker burials are found in central Europe, the skeletons are almost always of the same tall brachycephalic type which we have already studied in the eastern Mediterranean and Italy. In Spain, however, they are frequently of the Megalithic race. The basis for the belief that the Bell Beaker people of Spain were Dinarics rests largely upon three cranial fragments from the type site of this culture at Ciempozuelos, near Madrid, and upon one complete mesocephalic skull from Cerro de Tomillo some forty miles away.⁴⁶

The measurements of the three fragments are uncertain, and their allocation to a definite type impossible.⁴⁶ However, all three fragments appear to be brachycephalic, and one to have a high vault. One has strong, another weak, browridges. One seems to have a slight lambdoid flattening. In the only fragment which possesses facial bones, the orbits are high and the nose narrow. The Cerro de Tomillo skull is not, however, a pure dolichocephal, and does resemble, in a partial sense, the Dinaric brachycephalic variety which was common in the Mediterranean at that time.

Although there seems to be little doubt in the minds of the archaeologists that the Bell Beaker culture developed in Spain, and although eastern Mediterranean brachycephals came there at about the same time, the manner in which the physical type and the culture became identified with each other is still obscure.

During the Early Bronze Age, after the efflorescence of the Bell Beaker people, Spain became a great center of metallurgy and trading activity, rivalling the Aegean in importance. The colonists from the east, who had originally located themselves in Spain merely as miners and forward­ing agents of metal, now settled down to producing the finished products of the Bronze Age in Spain itself, for local sale, since disorders in the Mycenaean and Minoan realms had apparently cut them off from their homelands.⁴⁷ Furthermore, the introduction of fresh cultural elements from the east suggests that new people had joined them.

The principal site of the Early Bronze Age, el Argar in the province of Almeria, is located near the silver mines of Herrerias, which were worked in ancient times. From some thirteen hundred flexed urn burials, seventy

⁴⁸ Bosch-Gimpera, P., Real, vol. 4, pp. 345-362.

44. Ruhlman, A., Hesperis, vol. 15, 1932, No. 1, pp. 79-119.

45. Childe, The Danube in Prehistory, Chapter X, pp. 190-201.

48. Anton, M., BRAH, vol. 30, 1897, pp. 267-283.

Deslaers, M. H., BRAH, vol. 71, 1917, pp. 18-38.

47. Childe, The Bronze Age, p. 146.

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skulls have been recovered, of which twenty-nine are those of adult males, and forty of adult females,⁴⁸ The el Argar series shows quite definitely that the Early Bronze Age people of Almeria were not descendants of previous inhabitants, but to a large extent a new population, with definite Near Eastern relationships, as one might suppose from the cultural in­dications.

The series as a whole is one of small people, with a mean male stature of 158 to 160 cm.; the earlier Copper Age immigrants, for the most part, were ten centimeters taller. The skulls gravitate around the indices of 76 and 77; for sixty per cent of male and fifty-eight per cent of female crania are mesocephalic. Of the remaining skulls, long heads outnumber round heads two to one. The series is not very homogeneous, and the cranial index and most other criteria of form show modalities which make it certain that the el Argar people included at least two types which had not become completely amalgamated.

The principal cranial element is a normal, rather small variety of Med­iterranean, which seems to resemble, both metrically and in description, predynastic or early dynastic Egyptian forms, or at the same time, ele­ments which entered Spain in the Neolithic. Prominence of the brow­ridges at glabella, and a considerable nasion depression, make this type of Mediterranean rather unlike the Cappadocian variety common in Asia Minor, although metrically there is nothing to prevent such a rela­tionship.

The second type is the new brachycephalic element, which seems to have been the dominant one politically, in that two female skulls found wearing silver crowns both belonged to it. It was apparently some form of Near Eastern brachycephal with which we are already in a general way familiar—the skull is short, rather than broad; the vault is medium or low; the forehead is narrow, the lambdoid region often flattened, while the greatest breadth of the vault comes well to the rear. The nose is high and narrow, and the nasal bones join the frontal with little depression, while a smooth glabella heightens the impression of a high-bridged, Near Eastern type of nose. Although the orbits are high and rounded, the face is rather low, but the mandible is surprisingly broad, often with everted gonial angles. There is also a perceptible amount of alveolar prognathism.

Although this is not exactly the brachycephalic type which we met in the Copper Age, and which became identified with the Bell Beaker people, it is, nevertheless, definitely a Near Eastern variety of brachycephal which is familiar in Asia Minor and Syria today. The el Argar people represent a mixture of elements which could be duplicated in the modern Near East, but not one with which, in our ignorance of most of that end of the

47. Jacques, V., BSAB, vol. 6, 1887-88, pp. 210-236.