547

mans represent for the most part a reemergence of Briinn and Borreby types which have absorbed the Iron Age Nordic group almost completely, as well as the old North German Corded concentration. The southwestern Germans are the most nearly Nordic of all, but have strong Briinn and Borreby accretions. The southern Germans, from southern Baden to eastern Bavaria, are basically Alpine, with strong, often predominant, Dinaric tendencies, and a large purely brunet minority. In central Germany an intermediate condition between the North German and the South German extremes is found. In southeastern Germany, from Saxony to Silesia, while the head form is extremely brachycephalic, the pigmenta­tion is usually light, and the head size small in comparison with the north­ern and western parts of the country. The racial type which is most characteristic here is the Noric, a blond Dinaric form resulting from a brachycephalization of Iron Age Nordics through direct or indirect Alpine admixture. In Silesia, to the same elements may be added a broad-faced, snub-nosed, brachycephalic strain which we have already observed among Finns and Balts, and which will be studied in further detail in Poland and Russia. The northeastern Germans are for the most part blond brachy­cephals, varying in type from Borreby to East Baltic, and especially the latter.

Germany, by and large, is a country in which a variety of pre-Mediter- ranean racial types have experienced a maximum reemergence, and in which Mediterranean and Nordic elements have experienced a differential alteration in response to Alpine mixture. In its blended Noric form, the Nordic has survived in greater numbers than the low percentage of the unmixed form would indicate.

3. Switzerland and austria

To the south of the South German ethnic region lie Switzerland and Austria; the former contiguous to Baden and the latter to Bavaria. Northern and central Switzerland form an extension of the Alemannic settlement area already studied in Baden and the Swabian Alps, while western Switzerland is old Burgundian territory. The southeastern cantons lie on the periphery of the Germanic advance, and contain linguistic and cultural vestiges of the old Romanized Rhaetians.

In a geographical sense, Switzerland is almost entirely composed of three great valleys, forming the head waters of the Rhine, of its tributary the Aar, and of the Rh6ne. Each of these rivers includes a large lake in part of its course; the Rh6ne has Lake Geneva, the Aar Lake Neuchatel, and the Rhine Lake Constance. The main chain of the Alps lies on the southern Swiss border; thus most of the country is open only to the north­ward and westward. However, part of the Grisons empties into the Danube,

THE RACES OF EUROPE

and the canton of Ticino lies in the drainage of the Po. The waters of Switzerland, therefore, empty into the North Sea, the western Mediter­ranean, the Adriatic, and the Black Sea; Switzerland truly forms the nucleus of the continent of Europe.

Four languages are spoken in present-day Switzerland, of which three— French, German, and Italian, have long been official. The fourth, a provincial Latin derivative, spoken by the descendants of the Romanized Rhaetians, includes the dialects of Ladin and Romansch, and has only recently acquired its legal status.⁵⁹ Other groups speaking this language live in the Tyrol and in northeastern Italy. Of the four million Swiss, 71 per cent speak German, 21 per cent French, 6 per cent Italian, and slightly more than 1 per cent speak Ladin and Romansch. French predominates in the west, in the cantons of Vaud, Neuchatel, Geneva, Freiburg, and Valais; Italian in Ticino; and German elsewhere. Ladin is spoken in the Engadine, and Romansch in the Bunder Oberland, both in the canton of Grisons.

The country is likewise divided on a religious as well as linguistic basis, with 58 per cent of Protestants, and the rest mostly Catholic. Protestants are most numerous in the north and west, Catholics in the south and center. In general, the French-speaking territory is prevailingly Protestant, the Italian-speaking territory Catholic, while both persuasions are evenly partitional among the German speakers. There is no clear correlation between language and religion. Divided by language and by religious belief, the Swiss likewise preserve strongly differentiated local cultural traits, which vary greatly from canton to canton. Despite these differences, Switzerland, owing to geographical and historical causes, remains a very closely integrated nation. As Montandon has remarked, its very diversity in these respects has without doubt done much to inculcate in the Swiss their neutral and international character.⁶⁰

The present-day Swiss are also divided to a certain extent in a racial sense. Those living in the northern and western valleys resemble the populations found in southwestern Germany, where a combination of moderately tall stature, low brachycephaly, and moderately light pig­mentation indicate a Nordic survival of racial elements in Alpine-Dinaric racial territory. The southern and eastern Swiss, on the other hand, are darker and rounder-headed and show less of this northern lowland influence.⁶¹

46. In June, 1938. See Lansel, Peider, The Raeto-Romans,

⁰⁰ Montandon, G., UEthnie Franqaise, pp. 182-195. This contains an excellent sum­mary of the physical anthropology of the living Swiss.

61. An extensive survey of Swiss recruits carried on between 1927 and 1932 under the direction of Dr. Otto Schlaginhaufen has at the time of writing received only prelimi­nary publication. The survey covers 35,000 recruits from all parts of Switzerland, and

549

The mean stature of 35,000 recent Swiss recruits is 168.6 cm., a figure comparable to that of southern and western Germans. It has risen greatly in recent years, since the mean for the 1884-91 period was 163.5 cm. There are three areas in which tall stature is commonest; the country around Geneva and Lake NeucMtel, and western Valais; the very north, from Basel to Lake Constance; and the eastern Grisons. Elsewhere local variability is great; the shortest stature occurs in parts of Bern, and in Appenzell-Innerrhoden in the northwest. In the 1880’s the stature in the two Appenzells was at the 160 cm. level; by 1930 it had risen to 165 cm. in Appenzell-Innerrhoden and to 166 cm. in Appenzell-Ausserrhoden. Areas of depression, taches noires in the French sense, seem to have been ironed out; low stature in Switzerland is directly environmental and not racial.

In the 1927-32 survey the mean cephalic index of 81.3 was found for all of Switzerland. This low figure comes as a surprise to the majority of anthropologists, who have long considered Switzerland to be the center and homeland of the Alpine race in Europe. The Alpine race, however, is much more concentrated today in France, in northern Italy, in Bavaria, and in southern Albania than it is in Switzerland. The cantons range from 79.6 in Basel city to 83.7 in Ticino; in general a line drawn from the western end of Lake Constance to the eastern end of Lake Geneva will divide the mesocephals and near-mesocephals of the northwest from the sub-brachycephals and brachycephals of the southeast.

One reason why the discovery that the Swiss as a nation are only sub- brachycephalic is so surprising is that most of the published cranial series have mean cranial indices varying from 82 to 87. With few excep­tions these are drawn, however, from the southern and eastern cantons, from small local populations in the roundest-headed part of Switzerland. Still, Pittard’s total mean for several hundred crania from Valais is 84.5, as contrasted with a cephalic index of 82.2 on the living. This discrepancy may be partly technical and partly due to regional selection,⁶² but one is tempted to believe that the great increase in stature in recent times has been accompanied by a lowering of the cephalic index.

The mean cranial and facial diameters of the living Swiss strongly suggest that the non-Alpine, non-Dinaric elements in the population are Nordic and Mediterranean, especially the former, and not Briinn or Borreby, as in northern and much of western Germany. The mean head

includes detailed measurements and observations. Its final publication should supplant all previous studies of a general nature. Preliminary notices which present summaries and portions of these data include: Schlaginhaufen, O., BSGA, vol. 13, 1936-37, pp. 7- 11; BIKB, 1936, pp. 507-511.

61. As one moves up the Rhdne Valley within the canton of Valais, the mean C. I. on the living increases, from 80 at Sion to 83 higher up. Bedot, M., BSAP, ser. 4, vol. 6, 1895, pp. 486-494; ser. 4, vol. 9, 1898, pp. 222-236.

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length for Swiss males is 189 mm., the breadth 154 mm.; the total face height is 122 mm., the bizygomatic 137 mm. The facial index mean is 89, that of the nasal index 63.⁶³ Fifty-eight per cent have straight or wavy nasal profiles, 16 per cent concave, and only 25 per cent convex. Thus the Alpine and Nordic nasal forms outweigh the Dinaric.

The Swiss are on the whole as blond as most West and South Germans, and less so than North Germans. About 50 per cent of recruits have dark brown hair (Fischer #4-5) while the rest have for the most part medium to light brown shades. Brown and dark-mixed eyes are found in one-third of the group.⁶⁴ On the whole central and northern Switzerland are the blondest, and in these regions small localities may be extremely blond; light pigmentation is geographically associated with German speech. Italian and Romansch-speaking centers are the most brunet, while the French-speaking cantons are intermediate. In the northern cantons ash- blond hair (Fischer #22-26) is common, and is largely identified with Noric and sub-Nordic types.⁶⁵

The principal results of this survey of Switzerland are: the discovery that the Alpine-Dinaric racial complex is centered to the south and to either side of the Republic; the determination that a large Nordic element has survived here in solution, only partly brachycephalized by Alpine and Dinaric mixture; the further determination that Switzerland has been entirely or almost entirely free from Briinn-Borreby intrusion.

Austria, which lies to the east of Switzerland, and which is now politi­cally a part of Germany, is almost wholly contained within the drainage of .the upper Danube. Vorarlberg, however, forms part of the uppermost segment of the Rhine basin, while the southern Tyrol, at present under Italian sovereignty, lies over the Alpine watershed in the drainage of the Adige. Austria in the political sense is entirely Germanic in language, ex­cept for the presence of a few Slovenes in the Biirgenland; in the Italian Tyrol there are German, Italian, and Ladin-speaking communities. Like Switzerland, Austria faces northward, with the Alpine watershed at her back; this northward exposure is largely responsible for the retention of Austria’s Germanic character from the days of the Volkerwanderung. While Switzerland’s face is turned more specifically to the northwest than to the true north, Austria’s orientation is rather to the northeast; thus in a sense the two upland areas, with the Rhine-Danube watershed between

⁹³ Regional data will be found in:

Schwerz, F., NDSN, vol. 45, sec. 2, 1910.

Zbinden, F., AFA, vol. 38, 1911, pp. 280-317.

⁶⁴ Schlaginhaufen, O., BSGA, vol. 3, 1926-27, pp. 21-36.

66. Zbinden, F., AFA, vol. 38, 1911, pp. 280-317. I am using “sub-Nordic” here in Montandon’s sense, to designate a Nordic partially brachycephalized by Alpine ad­mixture.

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them, are isolated from each other. While the first Neolithic civilization of Switzerland came up the Rh6ne from the western Mediterranean and Spain, that of Austria was derived from the east by way of the Danube. These differences have been obscured by some subsequent events, and strengthened by others; still the ultimate distinction remains.

The present Austria consists of seven provinces; Vorarlberg, Tyrol, Salzburg, Carinthia, Styria, Upper Austria, and Lower Austria; to these will be added for present purposes the Trentino, or Italian Tyrol. All of these regions have been subjected to anthropometric study, and the racial situation in Austria may be stated without ambiguity.

Lower and Upper Austria, which are both situated directly in the Danube Valley, and both of which include the southern foothills behind the alluvial plain, stand on a highroad of migration and occupy one of the most fertile and desirable areas of Europe. They lie within the prob­able area of development of one branch, at least, of the Nordic race; Danubians, Corded people, Bell Beaker folk, all contributed to the racial amalgam of the ages of Bronze and Iron; the Germanic and Slavic invasions of the present era have furnished additional increments. Slavic influence has been greater in Lower than in Upper Austria, but secondary to the Germanic in both.

The population of the two Austrias belongs, with that of Switzerland, in an Alpine-Dinaric-Nordic category.⁶⁶ The mean cephalic indices of the various districts range from 80.8 in Hernals, just west of Vienna, to 84.8 in Waidhofen, also in Lower Austria. In general, the districts lying north of the Danube in both provinces have higher means than those on the southern bank; they approach the higher brachycephaly of Bavaria and of Bohemia. Lower and Upper Austria form a relatively long-headed interlude between the brachycephalic nucleus just mentioned and that of the Tyrol.

The stature of these two provinces, Lower and Upper Austria, ranges about the mean of 167-168 cm., with little regional variation. Brown hair occurs in over 40 per cent of the group, and one-third have been classed as blond. Eyes are for the most part blue or gray with accompany­ing mixtures, and browns account for some 24 per cent of the total. Pair or light-mixed complexion types are commoner than brunet ones. The ash-blond hair with gray or mixed eyes combination is frequent, and is associated not only with a few phenotypically pure Nordics, but also with the much commoner Noric form. The Dinaric type emerges, in sorting, as the tallest but not the most brachycephalic element. Of the four most easily recognizable types in these provinces, Noric, Alpine, Dinaric, and

« Brezina, E., and Wastl, J., MAGW, vol. 59, 1929, pp. 19-38, 311-322.

Weisbach, A., MMSC, vol. 11, 1892; MAGW, vol. 24, 1894, pp. 232-246.

THE RAGES OF EUROPE

Nordic, the first is probably the commonest. Thus altered and unaltered Nordics must account for well over half the population. The Nordic element must be derived as much from a local Hallstatt as from a Germanic source.

In the three provinces of Salzburg, Carinthia, and Styria, the racial situation is much the same as in Lower and Upper Austria.⁶⁷ In Salzburg there are fewer brown eyes (20 per cent) and the Noric element appears particularly important; unaltered Nordics are common only in Lower Austria. In South Styria and in Carinthia the stature approaches the 170 cm. level, blondism slightly decreases, and a Dinaric type becomes commoner.

On account of its reputation as a Dinaric racial center, the Tyrol has been the subject of many special investigations.⁶⁸ The Tyrol in the geo­graphical and ethnic sense includes the upper valley of the Inn, which served historically as a highroad of Germanic invasion over the Alps, and the smaller mountain valleys on either side of the Alpine chain. A branch of the Inn, the river Wipp, leads directly to the Brenner Pass and down into Italy. The Tyrol was not settled until the Metal Age; the first inhabitants who came in any numbers were Atlanto-Mediterraneans from northern Italy, and Dinarics both from southern Germany and from Italy. In Hallstatt times, however, the population increased, and the Rhaetians, later to become Romanized, developed as an ethnic unit under Hallstatt cultural tutelage. The Ladin speakers of the side valleys of the Italian Tyrol are today in most respects good representatives of the pre- Roman Rhaetians, while the Germanicizing and Italicizing of the others has been only partial in all respects other than in language. The Dinaric racial type has had, in the Tyrol, a complete continuity from the Bronze Age to the present.

The living Tyrolese are moderately but not extremely tall; valley means range from 167 cm. to 172 cm. They are brachycephalic, with means varying between 82 and 87. On the whole the Italian speakers are the least brachycephalic, and the Ladin speakers and some of the German

⁶⁷ Keiter, F., MAGW, vol. 43, 1933, pp. 293-319.

Ploy, H., MAGW, vol. 38, 1908, pp. 324-347.

Weisbach, A., MAGW, vol. 25, 1895, pp. 69-84; vol. 28, 1898, pp. 195-213; vol. 30, 1900, pp. 79-99.

⁶⁸ Principal works on the living includes:

Knobl, G., MAGW, vol. 43, 1933, pp. 320-325.

Lebzelter, V., MAGW, vol. 59, 1929, pp. 209-228.

Tappeiner, F., Studien zur Anthropologie Tirols, Innsbruck, 1883; ZFE, vol. 12, 1880, pp. 269-288.

Toldt, C., MAGW, vol. 21, 1891, pp. 69-78, also Supplement. _#

Much more has been done on the craniology of the Tyrolese than on the living popu­lation.

553

speakers the most so, while the greatest brachycephaly lies on the Italian side of the divide. The Tyrolese are typically intermediate in pigmenta­tion; brown hair is commonest, although on the German side a large minority is blond; among Italian speakers black hair rises to over 20 per cent. Among German speakers brown eyes run to roughly 20 to 30 per cent; among Italian speakers they approach 40 per cent. The Ladiner, who are among the roundest-headed, are definitely the darkest; with over 45 per cent of dark eyes, and over 75 per cent of black and brown hair. There is, in all the Tyrol, a strong minority of brunet or swarthy skin color, which rises to 50 per cent among the Ladiner.

The cranial and facial dimensions of the Tyrolese⁶⁹resemble those of the Swiss, except that the vault lengths are shorter and the facial breadths greater. The head length mean for brachycephals with a mean cephalic index of 85.8, is 185 mm., the breadth 159 mm.; the minimum frontal, bizygomatic, and bigonial diameters are 109 mm., 142 mm., and 109 mm.; the face height is 126 mm., and the nasal dimensions are 58 mm. by 36 mm.; the facial index 87, the nasal index 63. The only real differences between the Tyrolese and the rest of the Austrians lie in a shorter head length mean and a broader jaw.

Toldt,⁷⁰ in a study of 710 modern Tyrolese crania, of which 83 per cent are brachycephalic, finds 47.5 per cent of the whole, or over half of the brachycephalic specimens, to be planoccipital; the ratio for the different valleys inhabited by German and Italian speakers varies from 23 per cent to 54 per cent, but it rises to 70 per cent in the crania from the Ladin- speaking districts.

Planoccipital Tyrolese crania differ from their curvoccipital neighbors in but a few measurements, although the morphological differences are greater. In the planoccipital crania, the distance from glabella to inion is nearly as great as the maximum length; in curvoccipital skulls the differ­ence between these two diameters is considerable. In the planoccipital crania, the mean post-auricular length is 75.9 mm.; the mean for the curvoccipital crania is 82.4 mm. An index between the nasion-basion length and the post-basion base length of the skull is approximately 60 to 70 in the planoccipital, and 88 to 100 in the curvoccipital, crania. Thus the differences between Alpine and Dinaric skulls lies not so much in total vault diameters or in facial dimensions as in the measurements which indicate that the ear hole and foramen magnum lie to the rear in the planoccipital crania, and that, owing to the steepness of the occipital bone, lambda stands relatively forward. The metrical peculiarities of the Dinarics are more easily determined on the crania than on the living.

66. Frizzi, E., MAGW, vol. 39, 1909, pp. 1-65.

» Toldt, C._} MAGW, vol. 40, 1910, pp. 67-100.

THE RACES OF EUROPE

Before leaving Austria we may mention the racial position of the in­habitants of the Walserthal in Vorarlberg, a high valley draining into the Rhine.⁷¹ The Walserthal is the scene of a Germanic thrust directly from the north, of the same nature as those which affected Switzerland; the living Walser, who are blonder than the Tyrolese, are metrically comparable to the populations already studied in Baden and the Swabian Alps, rather than to the Alpo-Dinaric group in its purer form.

3. ITALY

Italy, one of the most clearly demarcated geographical units in Europe, is a country of considerable racial variability. Although the Mediter­ranean race is strongly represented in it, Italy belongs only partially to the Mediterranean world, for much of it is more typically Alpine racial territory. Unfortunately, it is impossible to trace the early prehistory of the Alpines in Italy, since our knowledge of the Palaeolithic and Mesolithic periods there is still obscure. The primary racial impulse of the early Neolithic, however, is known. This was the immigration of small Mediter­raneans in great numbers, coming largely if not entirely by sea; these first food-producers were followed by more competent navigators, Atlanto- Mediterraneans, who settled chiefly in the north and in the islands, and Dinarics from the eastern Mediterranean in search of metal. Some of these Dinarics penetrated the Alpine Valleys while others settled in the Po Valley and in central Italy. The movement of highly cultured peoples from the east into Italy continued into historic times, and included the settlement of the Etruscans in Tuscany, and of the Greeks in Sicily and in the southern end of the peninsula.

As early as the Bronze Age there were, however, counter-movements from the north, including the invasions of the early Italici, ancestors of Oscans and Umbrians, Latins and Faliscans, and also the arrival of Illyrian tribes in northern and eastern Italy. Whereas the movements by sea had brought in Mediterraneans of different kinds, some short and some tall, some straight-nosed and others beaked in a Near Eastern manner, as well as Dinarics, the movements from the north introduced Nordics of two varieties; the classic Hallstatt type, and the Keltic Iron Age type which was later to form the basic racial element among the Roman patricians. Further invasions from the north, of Kelts and of Germans, had only local influence.

More important perhaps than many of these invasions was the effect of the Roman industrial system, which relied on involuntary labor, and which necessitated the introduction of slaves of all known races and

71. Wacker, R., ZFE, vol. 44, 1912, pp. 437-524.

Weidenrcich, F., BSGA, vol. 4, 1927-28, pp. 5-6.

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countries by the thousands. Although some of these slaves were prevented by ill usage and by segregation from propagating, the majority without doubt reproduced, and with their emancipation under Christianity blended readily into the local populations. Other strangers who were not slaves moved to Italy in great numbers; as traders, craftsmen, soldiers, and visitors attracted to the center of civilization. Thus through her r61e as mistress of the world Rome accumulated and assimilated a heterogeneous population.

That this population was by no means purely or even predominantly Mediterranean is shown by the study of the skulls of Pompeiians,⁷² victims of the eruption which turned their city from a metropolis into a museum. These crania, with a mean cranial index of 80, represent a population which had acquired a racial character of its own despite its mixed origin, and in which the Alpine element was the most important. The vaults are of moderate size, as are the faces; the mean nasion-menton height of 119 mm. is too low to suggest a strong Dinaric element, which the mesorrhiny typical of the group also precludes. A series of 100 modern crania from Bologna,⁷³ with a mean cranial index of 83.5, is almost purely Alpo- Dinaric, with the latter element in a position of prominence. The Dinaric race is common in northern, but not in southern Italy, and this distinction has been true since the Bronze Age.

Our knowledge of the physical anthropology of living Italians is based largely upon the work of Livi,⁷⁴ who measured some 300,000 recruits of the classes of 1859-63. In using this material it must be remembered that it is over half a century old, and that Livi’s head measuring technique was not in accordance with modern standards. Thus the Italians are without doubt taller now than in Livi’s day, and they are from one to two points less brachycephalic. Despite these corrections, Livi’s work is of great value. It has established the main facts of regional distribution in Italy beyond question. These are that stature increases as one goes northward from Sicily and the toe of Italy; that the cephalic index increases in tlfe same manner, as does blondism. In northern Italy the tallest men are longer headed than the mean; in southern Italy the shortest men are longer headed. Blondism is everywhere correlated with a relatively high cephalic index.

In other words, the southern Italians are a blend for the most part of Alpines and small Mediterraneans, while among the northern Italians the nost important dolichocephalic strain is the Atlanto-Mediterranean. The

71. Nicolucci, G., APA, vol. 12, 1882, pp. 143-178.

Schmidt, E., AFA, vol. 17, 1888, pp. 189-227.

71. Calori, C. L., MASB, ser. 2, vol. 8, 1868, pp. 205-234.

Schwerz, F., AFA, vol. 43, 1917, pp. 181-195.

71. Livi, R., Antropometria Military.

THE RACES OF EUROPE

association of relatively great blondism with brachycephaly merely in­dicates that both Alpines and Dinarics are characteristically mixed or intermediate in pigmentation. The few unaltered Nordics still found in northern Italy and in aristocratic families elsewhere are far outnumbered by Atlanto-Mediterraneans.

The mean stature for the recruits of 1859-63 was 164.5 cm., that for the classes of 1907-09 was 165.5 cm.⁷⁵ A better figure for the present would probably be 166 cm. The present provincial range would probably run from 164 cm. in the south, to 168 cm. in Piedmont and Veneto, as well as in the Trentino. The mean cephalic index of Livi’s recruits was 82.7; that of the 1907-09 class 80.8. The reduction of two index points is largely technical, but may be partly due to stature increase. Despite this difference, the northern Italians, the Piedmontese particularly, are very brachycephalic, more so than the Swiss <jr Austrians, and the Piedmont forms a continuation of the southwestern French zone of Alpine racial concentration.

Special studies of southern Italians and Sicilians have been made in America, where several millions of these people live.⁷⁶ Although some selection may have taken place in the determination of who should come to America and who should stay at home, they probably fall near enough to the total mean for present purposes. This group is not short, but slightly under medium in stature; the present mean is about 165 cm. A relative span of 102, and a relative sitting height of 53.3, strongly indicate a short­legged, short-armed, and long-bodied condition, while a mean weight of 150 pounds is heavy for this stature level. Although slender, delicately built Mediterraneans are found among these people, the great majority are thick-set, short-necked, short-fingered, broad-handed, and heavy- torsoed. They incline to corpulence in middle age, and few of the women remain slender past the period of child-bearing.

The mean cephalic index for this group is 79; there is, however, a great range, and many are typical brachycephals. The head size stands in accord with the body bulk; a mean head length of 191 mm., and breadth of 151 mm., indicate a larger vault than is usual among Mediterraneans of the same stature. The facial breadths again exceed Mediterranean figures; the minimum frontal mean is 106 mm., that of the bizygomatic

⁷⁶ Gini, C., CIPP, ser. 1, vol. 5, 1934, pp. 589-607.

Gini’s figures cover exactly the same territory as Livi’s, and do not include recruits from the provinces acquired by Italy since Livi’s day.

76. Boas, F., Materials for the Study of Inheritance in Man; ZFE, vol. 45, 1913, pp. 615— 626.

Davenport, C. B., and Love, A. G., Army Anthropometry.

Hooton, E. A., The American Criminal.

Hrdli£ka, A., The Old Americans,

Willoughby, R. R., HB, vol. 5, 1933, pp. 690-705.

557

140 mm., and of the bigonial 108 mm. These dimensions fall suggestively into the Alpine category, while at the same time resembling those of coastal groups from Portugal. The mean total face height is 121 mm., the upper face height 70 mm. Facial and upper facial indices are mesopro- sopic and mesene. The nasal dimensions (54 mm. by 36 mm.) are moder­ately long and broad, the nasal index mean of 67 leptorrhine, but in a Mediterranean and Alpine rather than Nordic or Dinaric sense.

The skin color is as a rule dark; over 50 per cent of unexposed shades are definitely light brown or olive-colored, while the exposed skin often tans to a distinctive reddish-brown. Ten per cent are freckled. About 30 per cent have black hair, and 48 per cent dark brown; reddish brown shades, or dark to medium brown with a reddish glint, account for somfe 16 per cent, while the remaining 6 per cent have light brown or blondish colors. Pure dark eyes are found among 44 per cent of those studied; mixed eyes among 50 per cent, and pure light eyes among 6 per cent. The high ratio of reddish shades in the hair and of mixed eyes reflects the strong Alpine strain in this population, as does the large minority of non-brunet skin colors and the presence of freckling. Of the mixed eyes, the majority are dark-mixed, and green-brown combinations are three times as common as blue-brown and gray-brown put together.

The southern Italians depart from a Mediterranean standard in the development of the pilous system; over 80 per cent have medium to heavy beards, and the body hair is heavier than among any other European group studied.⁷⁷ The hair is rarely fine, usually coarse to medium in texture, and is curly in 10 per cent of this group, while wavy forms are usual. The forehead is of medium height and slope, as a rule, and the browridges medium; their typical development is Alpine rather than Mediterranean. The eyebrows are usually heavy, in 57 per cent concur­rent. The nasion depression is medium to deep, the nasal root of medium height, and frequently broad. The nasal bridge is usually quite high, and broader than among most other Europeans; the profile is variable, with large concave as well as convex categories; several types are present in this respect. The nasal tip is as a rule thicker than the European stand­ard, and the wings as often flaring as compressed. In 35 per cent the tip is depressed. The lips vary considerably in thickness, but more fall into the thick category than in most European groups; well over a third show a visible degree of facial or alveolar prognathism. The chin is frequently prominent, and the gonial angles frequently flaring; prominent malars are much commoner than compressed ones.

The southern Italians, as this survey will indicate, are a distinctive

76. That is, in Hooton’s American criminal material, drawn directly from all parts of Europe.

THE RACES OF EUROPE

group of people who do not fall into any one recognized racial category. Besides conventional Mediterraneans and Alpines there are two special types which are particularly common, and will be familiar to anyone living in Italian sections of the United States, as well as to anyone who has visited southern Italy. These are: (1) a coarse Mediterranean, short- statured, thick-limbed, mesocephalic, possessing a narrow forehead, wide malars, heavy browridges, a short, broad, straight or lightly concave nose with upturned tip, a strong jaw, and some prognathism; (2) a local approximation to an Armenoid, short-statured, especially thick-set and short-necked, with a flattened occiput, dome-shaped lateral vault profile, heavy browridges, a high-rooted, high-bridged, thick-tipped and depressed- trpped nose, and an especially prominent jaw.

The coarse Mediterranean mesocephal has counterparts in Spain and Portugal, as well as North Africa, and goes back at least to the time of the shell-heap burials of Muge. It seems, however, especially prevalent among South Italians. The local Armenoid may be partly descended from Near Easterners brought to central and southern Italy in imperial times, but it is more likely that it is to a greater extent a local combination of Alpine with various Mediterranean elements, through the mechanism of differ­ential inheritance.

Observational data on the population of the neighborhood of Bologna ⁷⁸ permits, by contrasts to the foregoing, a study in some detail of a North Italian population, one with a mean stature of about 168 cm. and a mean cephalic index of about 83 or 84. The skin color of the face is about equally divided between light brown and pinkish-white; the hair is black in 25 per cent, dark brown in 60 per cent, and light brown to blond in the rest of cases. Twenty-five per cent of eyes are dark brown, 38 per cent light brown or dark-mixed, and 27 per cent light-mixed or light. The pigmentation is lighter than in southern Italy, but still prevailingly brunet. There is a slight linkage between the lightest hair and eye colors and dolichocephaly, indicating that a Nordic type has preserved its identity as a minor element here.

The development of the pilous system is less marked here than in the south; body and beard hair are of normal European thickness; furthermore, only 14 per cent have concurrent eyebrows. These actually go more with the dolichocephals than with the brachycephals. The noses are convex in 32 per cent, straight in 58 per cent, and concave in 8 per cent of the group; convex noses are slightly more frequent among the long heads. Nasal tip thickness is usually medium, and lips are frequently thin. The thin nose and thin lip combination, which takes the form of a positive correlation, is again linked with dolichocephaly.

76. Frasetto, F., Note Antropologiche Sulla Popolazione del Bolognese.