To trace простежити

ancestor предок

forerunner попередник

divergent що розходиться, відхиляється

to breed розводити

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Text 11. Horse

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Throughout much of human history, horses have been closely associated with men. For thousands of years men hunted the horse for its meat. Later, after the horse was domesticated, nomadic tribes used horses as load-bearers and as sources of milk. The horse first became important in warfare sometime before 1500 B. C. when Mesopotamian peoples began to use horses to pull their war chariots, and throughout most of recorded history horses were used chiefly for warfare. The use of the horse for pulling heavy loads and tilling the soil was a comparatively recent development, following the development of the satisfactory harness in the late Middle Ages. In fact, horses did not replace oxen as the main source of agricultural power until the end of the 18^th century. After a brief reign as the most widely used source of tractive power, the work horse has been largely displaced by locomotives, automobiles, trucks, and tractors.

Horses now are used chiefly for the sports of horseback riding and racing, and their popularity for these purposes is so great that the horse population in some regions has actually increased.

Vocabulary:

To hunt полювати

load-bearer вантажо-тягач

warfare війна

chariot колісниця

to till орати (землю)

harness упряж, збруя

truck багажний візок

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Text 12. Proteins

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Proteins are of great importance for all life. The living tissues of plants and animals consist of protein material which is continually destroyed in the maintenance of life and must be restored.

Proteins are found in foods of both animal and plant origin. They are complex in nature and are composed of a number of amino acids present.

Certain amino acids can’t be built by the body. They are known as essential amino acids and must be supplied by the food eaten.

Variation in the quality of proteins has resulted in their classification as complete, partially complete and incomplete, based upon their ability to support normal growth and to maintain life even if it is the only protein in the diet.

A partially complete protein is one that maintains life but does not support normal growth.

An incomplete protein by itself neither support normal growth nor maintain life. Most animal proteins are complete. Plant proteins are more or less incomplete.

Vocabulary:

tissue continually to destroy maintenance to restore origin amino acid essential to supply to support

тканина постійно знищувати, руйнувати підтримка відновлювати походження амінокислота важливий постачати підтримувати

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Text 13. Protein and protoplasm

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Proteins represent the stream of life. They make up the vital part of that essential jelly material of the living cell – the protoplasm. The beginning of life at this and perhaps at few other planets must have been associated with the formation of proteins. This word means “to make first place”, for there is no life without proteins.. Usually these most essential of life’s materials have the indefinite and glue-like form known as a colloid though some of them have been separated as pure and definite crystals.

Though the detailed structures of the molecules are complex, there are only a few chemical elements which enter into their composition. Most proteins contain 51 to 55 per cent carbon, about 7 per cent hydrogen, 20 to 23 per cent oxygen, 15 to 18 per cent nitrogen.

Vocabulary:

stream потік

jelly material желеподібний матеріал

cell клітина

glue-like клеєподібний

colloid колоїд

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Text 14. Fat and fatty acids

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Fat makes our meals palatable and satisfying. Some fats and oils are important sources of vitamins A, D, E and K.

Fats provide various amounts of fatty acids known to be essential in diet.

Natural unsaturated fats are associated with the protein, minerals and vitamins characteristics of the food, as in milk or pork and also carry some vitamins.

Fatty acids that are common in food fats and oils fall into three broad classes according to their degree of saturation. The fully saturated fatty acids make up about 40 to 45 per cent in average diets. Saturated fatty acids may be any chain length from 4 to 18 or more carbons. The most common ones and their chain length are: stearic (18), palmitic (16), myristic (14) and lauric (12).

Beef contains 20 per cent of stearic and lard about 12 per cent.

Both animal and vegetable fats contain up to 5 per cent of various fatty substances that are not true fats but may be nutritionally important.

The complex composition of milk fat includes at least 64 different fatty acids. They contain from 4 to 26 carbon atoms with a relatively high proportion of short- chain. Many of saturated fatty acids are not found in other fats. In general, the fatty acids in milk fat are about 66% saturated, 30% monosaturated and 4% polyunsaturated. Milk fat is a small but dependable source of the essential fatty acids.

Vocabulary:

palatable unsaturated pork to fall into saturation chain length stearic palmitic myristic lauric lard polyunsaturated

смачний ненасичений свинина розділятися насичення довжина ланцюжка стеариновий пальмітиновий міристиновий лауриновий сало поліненасичені

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Text 15. Carbohydrates

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Carbohydrates are important in nutrition for many reasons. From carbohydrates we get most of energy which we need to act and move, perform work, live. Among the common carbohydrates are sugars and starches. They are composed of the chemical elements: carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.

Although carbohydrates are mostly of vegetable origin, sugar is found in the blood streams of animals and of man. Many different kinds of carbohydrates occur in foods.

Only a few foods consist of pure carbohydrates. A well-known example of these is sugar. The term “sugar” to most people means cane or beet sugar, which is sucrose, but such products as milk, fruit, vegetables contain sugars other than sucrose. They differ from each other but all give the foods, in which they are present, a characteristic sweet taste.

The most common sugars are sucrose, glucose, lactose or milk sugar, fructose and others. They are found in beet and cane, fruit and honey, vegetables.

Starch like sugar is also built by the combination of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. We know the ability of green plants to build starch and the ability of the animal body to utilise it.

Foods high in carbohydrates are: cereal grains, honey, vegetables, cakes, candy, cereal products.

Vocabulary:

carbohydrate to perform starch although to occur cane sucrose utilize cereal

вуглевод виконувати крохмаль хоч трапитися очерет, тростина сахароза використовувати злакові культури

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Text 16. What is a carbohydrate?

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From carbohydrates we get most of the energy which we need to act and move, perform work, live. Among the carbohydrates are sugars, starches and cellulose. All green plants form carbohydrates. They are important in nutrition for many reasons. Some of them make our food sweet. Some of them cling to our teeth and serve as food for bacteria that cause tooth decay.

The body needs carbohydrates in order to use fat efficiently. Some diseases, such as diabetes, develop because the body is unable to use carbohydrates properly. The carbohydrates contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.

Most of the different kinds of carbohydrates are plant products. Plants make them by photosynthesis. Many different kinds of carbohydrates occur in foods. Not all are of equal importance in nutrition. Starch is the only polysaccharide that man can use efficiently. Nutritionally it is far and away the most important carbohydrate.

Besides providing energy carbohydrates affect food consumption indirectly through their flavour, through their influence on the amount of water into the stomach.

Vocabulary:

cling decay food consumption amount flavour

чіплятися гниття споживання їжі кількість аромат, присмак

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Text 17. Constituents of milk

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Scientists have revealed the composition and properties of milk by persistent study. It was early recognised that milk contains proteins, fats, sugar and minerals.

In the last half of the 19^th century quickly developing chemistry helped to characterise the constituents of milk. When characterised constituents formed the overall picture of milk composition. By 1990 it was recognised that several different proteins are in milk, that milk fat is unique in composition, that milk sugar (lactose) is composed of two simpler sugars (glucose and galactose) and that milk contains different salts.

Since 1990 scientists has filled in and clarified numerous details in this picture. It was discovered that milk has all known vitamins except vitamin R and these vitamins are divided into two groups: fat-soluble and water-soluble vitamins.

The proteins in milk are composed of 20 amino acids, eight of which are essential for adults because they can’t be made by the body and must be obtained from food. The other 12 can be made by the body so are non-essential amino acids. Casein makes up 82 percent of the protein in milk. Because it contains the essential amino acids in levels needed by humans, casein is the standard for quality by which protein in other foods is measured.

Minerals in milk include calcium, phosphorus, potassium, magnesium and zinc. Research indicates that a long-term deficiency of calcium may contribute to the development of osteoporosis.

Vitamins are found in both the fat and non-fat components of milk. Vitamins A and D are the major fat-soluble vitamins present in milk. The B vitamins, thiamine, riboflavin, niacin and B12 are water-soluble vitamins present in milk. Milk is particularly an excellent source of riboflavin (B2), which regulates the body’s production of energy from dietary fat, carbohydrate and protein. It also promotes healthy skin and eyes.

Vocabulary:

constituents складова, компонент

to reveal відкрити

property властивість

persistent наполегливий

overall повний

unique унікальний

clarify вносити ясність

fat-soluble розчинні в жиру

water-soluble розчинні в воді

potassium калій

magnesium магній

to indicate вказувати, означати

long-term deficiency довготривалий дефіцит

osteoporosis остеопороз

thiamine тіамін

niacin ніацін

to promote сприяти

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Text 18. Meat, chemical composition

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Meats contain proteins, fats, water, inorganic salts, nitrogenous extractives, non-nitrogenous extractives, carbohydrates, enzymes and pigments. Meat is one of the most important sources of protein. The proportion of protein in meat varies somewhat with the kind and cut in beef, lamb and veal and comprises between 14 and 26 per cent in a given weight unit.

The protein of meat may be classified under simple proteins which when digested are broken down into groups called “building stones” or “amino acids”. The chief protein found in meat is myosin which is the basis of muscular tissue.

Meat contains enzymes which bring about ripening or ageing. Meats are rich sources of iron and phosphorus, however they are low in calcium and must be served with foods rich in calcium salts. Meat also contains copper which functions with iron in haemoglobin formation. Meat contains small amounts of extractives which although they have little food value are extremely important because they give flavour to meat and act as a stimulant to the flow of the digestive juices. The essential extractives found in meat are creatins and purins. They are called extractives because they may be extracted by boiling water. The extractives also contribute to the satiety value, which is one of the characteristics of meat.

Vocabulary:

nitrogenous extractive enzyme muscular tissue copper digestive juices satiety value

азотний екстракт ензим м’язова тканина мідь травні соки поживна цінність

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Text 19. Composition of dairy foods

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All dairy foods are made from milk, and their components are the same as those of milk but in varying amounts. Butter is an exception being comprised mainly of milk fat.

Milk is an oil-in-water type of emulsion (87% water), stabilized by complex phospholipids and proteins bound to the surface of the fat globules. It contains proteins, minerals, fat-soluble and water-soluble vitamins, enzymes and other organic compounds. A unique liquid food, its white appearance is produced by two salts, calcium caseinate and calcium phosphate.

PROTEINS

Milk’s principal proteins are casein (about 80%) and the whey proteins called lactalbumin and lactoglobulin. These proteins are complete or high quality; that is they contain in good proportion all the essential amino acids required by man. Essential amino acids are those that must be provided in food because the body cannot synthesize them at a rate sufficient to meet the needs for growth and maintenance. Most other animal proteins are also complete, but plant proteins are incomplete and have a lower biological value.

Cheese is also an excellent source of high quality protein. But since it does not contain whey proteins, its amino acid contribution differs from that of milk. Milk protein has a high coefficient of digestibility (87 to (05). In addition, when combinations of foods are eaten at the same meal, milk’s high quality protein complements the incomplete proteins.

FATS

Milk fat is 95 to 96% triglycerides; 0.8 to 1.0% phospholipids; 0.2 to 0.4% sterol – chiefly cholesterol; traces of free fatty acids, waxes and varying amounts of all the known fat-soluble vitamins. The complex composition of milk fat includes at least 64 different fatty acids, containing from 4 to 26 carbon atoms with a relatively high proportion of short-chain, saturated fatty acids, many of which are not found in other fats. In general, the fatty acids in milk fat are about 66% saturated, 30% monosaturated and 4% polyunsaturated.

CARBOHYDRATES

Milk is the only food source of the carbohydrate lactose, although it is the only significant carbohydrate in milk; traces of others, such as glucose and glucosamines, are also present. Lactose, a sugar, provides half of the solids in milk and contributes 30% of the food energy in whole milk.

Lactose has many beneficial characteristics. A relatively low solubility makes it less irritating to the stomach and intestine than highly soluble sugars. In addition, lactose increases the absorption of calcium, phosphorus and magnesium and favourably affects the intestinal flora.

MINERALS

Milk contain some of all the minerals known to be needed for good nutrition. It contains calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, potassium, sodium, chlorine, sulphur, and others in trace amounts. Calcium and phosphorus merit particular emphasis. The distribution of calcium in foods other than milk and dairy foods is not extensive.

Vocabulary:

to stabilize phospholipids fat globule synthesize rate sufficient to meet the needs for growth and maintenance trace beneficial solubility irritation intestine sulphur to merit

стабілізувати фосфоліпіди гранули жиру синтезувати коефіцієнт, ступінь достатній забезпечити потреби росту та життєдіяльності організму слід корисний розчинність подразнення кишечник сірка заслуговувати

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Text 20. Factors affecting milk composition

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GENETICS

Average genetic composition differences between species, ewe versus goat versus cow, and compared to human milk are considerable in absolute and relative terms. Ewe milk is generally much higher in solids contents than goat, cow's or human milks, but composition categories and contents of individual minerals, fatty acids and amino acids vary in different directions between the species, and without relation to higher or lower solids contents. The high solids content of ewe milk makes it generally superior to goat or cow milk for processing into cheese and yogurt, because of higher yield and firmer processing quality without additives. Nevertheless, published average data of milk of different species have to be used with caution, because within each species there are great genetic differences due to breeds and selected families, which can be used to market advantage.

Genetic differences in milk composition within species have a wide range for ewe milk fat from 4.6 percent to 12.6 percent and an average of 7.1 percent; for ewe milk protein from 4.8 to 7.2 percent and an average of 5.7 percent, depending on breed. Other components follow these ranges. It must be emphasized that cow's milks, when ewe or goat milks are compared with them, also have a wide composition range due to breeds. Goat milk composition likewise can have great differences, depending on breed, e.g. for milk fat from 2.3 percent to 6.9 percent and an average of 3.3 percent; for goat milk protein from 2.2 percent to 5.1 percent and an average of 3.4 percent.

Within species within breed one can identify through selective breeding considerable differences in milk composition. This includes genetic polymorphisms of milk proteins, which have commercial importance in cheese making.

Vocabulary:

average species ewe versus goat superior additives nevertheless due to caution breed advantage range likewise polymorphism

середній вид вівця проти цап тут. кращий добавки не дивлячись на завдяки обережність порода перевага діапазон також, таким же чином поліморфізм

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