4.8. Apostrophe

An apostrophe is used to show the possessive case of nouns and indefinite pronouns.

(1) If a word (either singular or plural) does not end in -s, add an apostrophe and-s to form the possessive.

the woman's book

the women's books

the child's book

the children's books

the man's book

the men's books

someone's book

people's books

(2) If the singular of a word ends in -s, add an apostrophe and s unless the second s makes pronunciation difficult; in such cases, add only the apostrophe.

Lois's book James's book

But: Moses' leadership Sophocles' dramas

(3) If the plural of a word ends in -s, add only the apostrophe.

the girls' books the boys' books the Smiths' books

(4) In compounds, make only the last word possessive.

father-in-law's book (singular possessive)

mothers-in-law's books (plural possessive)

someone else's book

(5) In nouns of joint possession, make only the last noun possessive; in nouns of individual possession, make both nouns possessive.

John and Paul's book (joint possession)

John's and Paul's books (individual possession)

(6) An apostrophe is also used to indicate the omission of a letter or number.

It's doesn't can't the earthquake of '88 won't o'clock

(7) In reproducing speech, writers frequently use an apostrophe to show that a word is given a loose or colloquial pronunciation.

"An’ one o’ the boys is goin’ t’ be sick," he said.

(8) Sometimes an apostrophe and s are used to form the plurals of letters, numbers, and words used as words. In such cases, the letters, numbers, and words are italicized, but the “s” is not.

Cross your t's and dot your I’s.

There are two l’s in the word 'travelling'.

Count to 1,000 by 2’s.

Tighten your sentence structure by eliminating unnecessary and’s.

4.9. Hyphen

In questions concerning hyphenation we can give only general rules, and each specific use of a hyphen should be verified in the dictionary.

(1) A hyphen is used to divide a word at the end of a line where the word continues over onto the next line.

(2) A hyphen is used to form most compound words containing the following word elements:

cross-eyed

single-space

cross-fertilization

single-valued

great-grandmother

double-edged

great-hearted

double-talk

light-handed

ill-suited

light-headed

ill-mannered

heavy-armed

well-balanced

heavy-laden

well-prepared

(3) Hyphens are used between the words of a compound modifier when it occurs before the noun but are usually omitted when the modifier follows the noun or when it is used in other ways. We do not hyphenate a compound modifier if it contains an adverb ending in-ly:

She gave us a word-for-word translation of the text. The translation was word for word. He got a hand-to-mouth salary. We were living hand to mouth. The students liked her well-prepared lesson. Everybody liked this carefully prepared lesson.

(4) A hyphen is used to join nouns in. forming compound nouns that show a combination of qualities or functions: director-producer, counselor-psycholog­ist, secretary-treasurer, etc.

(5) Hyphens are used to form compound nouns made up of different parts of speech. We do not hyphenate compound nouns denoting certain governmental positions:

an old stick-in-the-mud

mother-in-law

a good-for-nothing

sergeant-at-arms

a tenth-grader

postmaster general

editor-in-chief

lieutenant-colonel

(6) A hyphen is used to form many compound words containing certain prefixes or suffixes:

ex-president

senator-elect

ex-housewife

mid-December

self-doubt

neo-Nazi

(7) A hyphen may be used after a prefix if the prefix causes doubling of a vowel:

re-examine pre-establish co-operative

extra-atmospheric anti-imperialism re-enlist

(8) A hyphen is used to separate the parts of a compound number under one hundred when written out:

twenty-seven nineteen hundred and twenty-five

seventy-second box She is thirty-five years old.

(9) A hyphen is also used to separate the numerator and denominator of a fract­ion used as an adjective when written out:

a two-thirds majority

one-half cup of tea