3.2.4. Polysemy aspect of meaning

Frequently used Ws are polysemantic. The combinatorial possibility of meanings in one W is language-specific. English Ns combine individual & collective, countable & uncountable variants in 1 phonetic complex. In Vs different meanings are based on the transitive & intransitive lexico-semantic variants of the V. Morphological derivation plays an important part in determining possible meaning combinations (Ns derived from Vs often name the action itself). Thus, the grouping of meanings is different from the grouping of notions.

3.2.5. Nationally determined character of meaning

Notions are mostly international (for nations with the same level of cultural development). Meaning is nationally determined & limited. The grouping of meanings in the semantic structure of a W is determined by the whole language system, its grammar & vocabulary, the history of the language & the people who speak it. These factors influence the presence of this / that meaning in the semantic system, their respective place & importance.

The meaning of a W is part of the semantic system of the language & is determined by the peculiarities of its vocabulary, the existence of synonyms, typical usage, set expressions & by the Ws’ grammatical characteristics depending on the grammatical system of the language (go & идти).

Cases when 1 English W combines the meanings of 2 / more Russian Ws expressing similar notions & vice versa: a) boat – судно, шлюпка, пароход, лодка; coat – пальто, пиджак, китель; desk – парта, письменный стол; floor – пол, этаж; gun – пушка, ружье; cry – кричать, плакать; b) нога – foot & leg; рука – hand & arm; часы – watch & clock; пальцы – fingers & toes; сон – sleep & dream; высокий – high & tall.

3.3. Denotative & connotative meaning

The denotative meaning is essentially cognitive: it conceptualises & classifies our experience & names the objects spoken about. It fulfils the significative & the communicative functions of the W, is present in every W & is the central factor in the functioning of language.

The expressive function of the language with its orientation towards the speaker’s feelings, & the pragmatic function dealing with the effect of Ws upon listeners are rendered in connotations. Connotations are optional.

The description of the denotative meaning is the duty of lexicographers in unilingual explanatory dictionaries. There is no clear-cut demarcation line between the semantic features, strictly necessary for each definition, & optional ones. Dictionaries differ in solving the problem. A. Potebnya: the “proximate” W meaning with the bare minimum of characteristic features as used by every speaker in everyday life; the “distant” W meaning corresponding to what specialists know about the referent (‘special’ / ‘terminological’ meaning). Linguistics is only concerned with the 1st type. The bias of studies depends upon their goals.

4 main types of connotations: stylistic, emotional, evaluative, expressive (intensifying). Connotations vary considerably according to the ideology, culture, experience of the individual.

When associations concern the situation, social circumstances, relationships between the interlocutors, type & purpose of communication, the connotation is stylistic.

An effective method of revealing connotations is the analysis of synonymic groups, where the identity of denotative meanings makes it possible to separate the connotative overtones (horse, stylistically neutral; steed, poetic; nag, slang; gee-gee, baby language).

An emotional (affective) connotation is acquired by the W as a result of its frequent use in contexts corresponding to emotional situations / because the referent conceptualised & named in the denotative meaning is associated with emotions.

Evaluative connotation expresses approval / disapproval. A linguistic proof of an existing unpleasant connotation is the appearance of euphemisms. Euphemisms quickly lose their polite character, the unpleasant connotations are revived, & then are replaced by new euphemisms.

A 4th type of connotation is the intensifying (expressive, emphatic) one.

Ws often have 2 / 3 types of connotations at once. Sometimes emotion / evaluation is expressed in the style of the utterance.