5.2. Criteria of compounds

English CWs consist of free forms, it is difficult to distinguish them from phrases. The problem: defining W boundaries in the language. E. Nida: the criteria for determining the W-units in a language are of 3 types: phonological, morphological, syntactic. No 1 type of criteria is sufficient, the combination of 2 / 3 types is essential.

The 4^th criterion is graphic: solid / hyphenated spelling. With different dictionaries & authors the spelling varies: headmaster, loudspeaker; head-master, loud-speaker & head master, loud speaker. CWs constructed on the same pattern & with similar semantic relations between the ICs are spelt differently: textbook, phrase-book & reference book.

The phonic criterion of stress. English CWs have a heavy stress on the 1^st element. Many scholars: unity of stress is of primary importance: `blackboard : : `black`board, `blackbird : : `black`bird. The only exception: Ns whose 1^st elements are all- & self-: `All-`Fools-Day, `self-con`trol.

Compound Adjs are double stressed: `gray-`green, `new-`born. Only Adjs expressing emphatic comparison are heavily stressed on the 1^st element: `snow-white, `dog-cheap.

W-stress depends upon phrasal stress / the syntactic function of the CW. `Light-headed has a single stress when used attributively, in other cases the stress is even. The stress is often determined by opposition to other combinations with an identical 2<sup>nd</sup> element: `dining table : : `writing table (phrases).

The stress may be phonological & help differentiate the meaning of CWs: 'overwork ‘extra work’; 'over'work ‘hard work injuring one’s health’. → Phonological criterion holds for certain types of Ws only.

H. Paul, O. Jespersen, E. Kruisinga advocate the semantic criterion, & define CW as a combination forming a unit expressing a single idea which is not identical in meaning to the sum of the meanings of its components in a free phrase. The insufficiency of the criterion: it is difficult to decide whether the combination expresses a single integrated idea. Between a motivated CW & an idiomatic one there are many intermediate cases. As the semantic features of set expressions are similar to those of idiomatic CWs, we shall have to include all idiomatic phrases into CWs.

Morphological criteria of CWs.: 1) formal integrity (A. Smirnitsky) Shipwreck – (the) wreck of (a) ship: the same morphemes, meaning & reference, but different relation to the grammatical system of the language.

2) Plural number neutralised in a CW: taxpayer, cigar smoker, window-cleaner, lip-read, still-lifes.

3) Connective elements: -s- (craftsman), -o- (Anglo-Saxon), -i- (handiwork).

Sometimes it is the structural formula of the combination that shows it to be a W. Starlit cannot be a phrase because its 2^nd element is the stem of a participle, which cannot be syntactically modified by a N.

The syntactical criterion: (L. Bloomfield) black in black birds can be modified by very but not black in blackbirds. This argument does not permit distinguishing CWs from set expressions ( black market).

Transformational procedures. The phrase a stone wall ≈ the phrase a wall of stone; a blackboard ≠ a black board. Impossibility of transformation → structural integrity of CW. The procedure works only for idiomatic CWs, motivated CWs permit the transformation: tooth-powder → powder for teeth; a tooth-brush → a brush for teeth.

The problem of distinguishing a CW from a derivative ≈ distinguishing a stem from an affix. In most cases the ICs of a CW are free forms, a combination containing bound forms as its ICs, is a derivative.

Borderline cases: semi-affixes occurring as independent Ns (man, berry, land). They have acquired valency similar to that of affixes. They are unstressed, the vowel sound has been reduced to [ə]. The factors conducing to transition of free forms into semi-affixes: high semantic productivity, adaptability, high valency, brevity.

A great valency characterises -like, -proof, -worthy, -wise → they may be also referred to semi-affixes; -monger & -wright, very productive in combinations, are completely dead as independent Ws (godlike, gentlemanlike, ladylike, unladylike, childlike, unbusinesslike, suchlike; fashionmonger, scandalmonger, warmonger, fishmonger, ironmonger; playwright, shipwright, wheelwright; damp-proof, fire-proof, bomb-proof, waterproof, shockproof, kissproof, foolproof).

Semi-affixes may be also used in preposition like prefixes: mini-budget, midi-coat, maxi-coat; self-starter.

The stone wall problem: the status of the complexes like stone wall, cannon ball / rose garden. N premodifiers of other Ns become closely fused together with what they modify → whether the result is a CW / a syntactical free phrase. The status of the 1^st element – a N used as an attribute / an Adj. The Heritage Dictionary of the English Language: the N stone & the Adj stone. A. S. Hornby: stone, an uncountable N, often used attributively: stone wall.

R. Quirk (the grammar of contemporary English) describing premodification of Ns by Ns: they become so closely associated as to be regarded as CWs. The meaning of N premodification may correspond to an of-phrase (the story of his life – his life story), correlate with a prepositional phrase: a war story – a story about war, an arm chair – a chair with arms.

R. Quirk: orthographic criteria is unreliable, no hard rules about solid, hyphenated / open spelling. Complexes with open spelling that he treats as CWs: book review, crime report, office management, steel production, language teacher. They are placed in different structural groups according to the grammatical process they reflect. Book review, crime report, haircut are compound count Ns formed on the model ‘object+deverbal N’: X reviews books → the reviewing of books → book review. We could take all the above examples as free syntactic phrases ← the substitution of an equonym for the 1^st element leaves the meaning of the 2^nd (nickel production, a geography teacher). The 1^st elements may be modified by an Adj. – an English language teacher. The meaning of the whole can be inferred from the meaning of the parts.

H. Marchand: `stone `wall is a 2-stressed combination. The 2-stressed pattern never shows the intimate permanent semantic relationship between the 2 components characteristic of CWs.

An increasing number of linguists: the majority of English Ns are regularly used to form nominal phrases, semantically derivable from their components but with unity of referential meaning. This set of nominal phrases exists alongside the set of nominal CWs. The boundaries between the 2 sets are not rigid, they are correlated; many CWs originated as free phrases.