3.8. Linguistic causes of semantic change

Linguistic causes influencing the process of vocabulary adaptation are of paradigmatic & syntagmatic character: interaction & interdependence of vocabulary units in language & speech, differentiation of synonyms, changes in connection with ellipsis & fixed contexts, resulting from ambiguity in certain contexts.

Differentiation of synonyms is a gradual change in the course of language history, sometimes involving the semantic assimilation of loan Ws. Synonyms time & tide: tide took on limited application to the shifting waters, time is used in the general sense. Beast was borrowed from French into MidE. The OE general W for animal deer became narrowed to ‘a hoofed animal of which the males have antlers’. Later the Latin animal was borrowed, beast was restricted to the 4-footed kind, displaced deer & was displaced by the generic animal.

Fixed context. OE twist ‘a rope’; thrawan (now throw) meant ‘hurl’ & ‘twist’. Twisten appeared in MisE, the 1st verb lost this meaning. Throw influenced the development of a Scandinavian borrowing casten (cast). In the meaning of ‘hurl’, ‘throw’ cast is present only in set expressions: cast a glance, cast lots, cast smth. in one’s teeth.

The syntagmatic semantic changes depend on the context. Ellipsis. The qualifying Ws of a frequent phrase are omitted: sale for cut-price sale, propose for propose marriage, be expecting for be expecting a baby, media for mass media. The kernel W of the phrase may seem redundant: minerals for mineral waters, summit for summit meeting. Starve, originally meant ‘to die’ (|| Germ sterben) substitutes die of hunger, also ‘to suffer from lack of food’, in colloquial use ‘to feel hungry’, ‘to cause to perish with hunger’.

Coincidence of subjective & objective, active & passive aspects in Adjs: hateful ‘exciting hatred’ & ‘full of hatred’; curious ‘strange’ & ‘inquisitive’; pitiful ‘exciting compassion’ & ‘compassionate’. Conversives.

3.9. Extralinguistic causes of semantic change

Extralinguistic causes are connected with the development of the human mind. Changes of meaning result from the development of the notion expressed & the thing named, the appearance of new notions & things. Influence of social, political, economic, cultural, technical change on linguistic phenomena is studied by sociolinguistics. Social factors can influence structural features of linguistic units: terms of science have specific features.

W as a linguistic realisation of notion changes with the progress of human consciousness, reflected in the development of lexical meaning. The human mind achieves more exact understanding of the reality → the notions become more exact reflections of real things: OE eorde ‘the ground under people’s feet’, ‘the soil’, ‘the world of man’ as opposed to heaven → the 3rd planet; ‘a connection of a wire conductor with the earth’.

Space ‘extent of time / distance’ / ‘intervening distance’→ ‘the limitless & indefinitely great expanse in which all material objects are located’. Outer space was ellipted into space: spacecraft, space-suit, space travel.

The tendency to use technical imagery: to spark off in chain reaction; black box; feed-back. Some technical expressions of the 19th century become obsolete: being galvanised into activity, / going full steam ahead.

Elevation & pejoration of meaning reflect social / power relationships. Male domination is reflected in the ways women are talked about: affective Ws denigrating women (hussy from MidE huswif (housewife), now ‘a woman of low morals’, ‘a bold saucy girl’; doll for a kept mistress / a pretty & silly woman; wench formerly ‘a female child’, later ‘a girl of the rustic / working class’).

Euphemism is dictated by social usage, etiquette, advertising, tact, diplomatic considerations, political propaganda. From the semasiological point of view: meanings with unpleasant connotations appear in neutral Ws as a result of their use instead of unmentionable Ws: deceased ‘dead’, deranged ‘mad’.

Euphemisms are devices in political & military propaganda: aggressive attacks by armadas of bombers are protective reaction. The CIA agents use destabilise for malicious acts & subversions. Shameful secrets of various CIA operations are family jewels.

A wish to give more dignity to a profession: barbers – hair stylists, hairologists; airline stewards, stewardesses – flight attendants, maids – house workers, foremen – supervisors.

Economic causes: wealth meant ‘well-being’, ‘happiness’ from weal from OE wela (whence well). Original meaning is preserved in commonwealth & commonweal. The chief wealth of the early inhabitants of Europe being cattle, OE feoh meant ‘cattle’ & ‘money’; Lat pecus ‘cattle’, pecunia ‘money’. ME fee-house is a cattle-shed & a treasury. The ModE fee means the price paid for services to a lawyer / physician. The development of industry, agriculture, trade, transport → new objects & new notions. Ws to name them are either borrowed / created from material already existing.

Questions

1. What does semasiology study?

2. What are the most important types of semantic complexity?

3. What is the conceptual content of a word expressed in?

4. What is the difference between the significative & demonstrative meanings?

5. What is the content of the notion made up of?

6. Why are notions mostly international & meanings nationally determined?

7. Which component of the semantic structure of the word reflects its pragmatic value?

8. What are the four types of connotations?

9. Why is polysemy considered to be a phenomenon of language, not speech?

10. What constitutes the object of onomasiology?

11. What types of context do you know?

12. What research method are semantic markers & distinguishers employed in?

13. Provide examples of specialization.

14. Provide examples of generalization.

15. What psychological mechanism is metaphor based on?

16. What connections can metonymy be conditioned by?

17. What kind of semantic transfer is evident in the meaning of Haven’t seen you for ages?

18. What linguistic causes of semantic change do you know?

19. What linguistic discipline studies the influence of social, political, economic, cultural & technical change upon linguistic phenomena?

Literature

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