9.4. Synonyms

Each separate lexical meaning of a W = a denotative component identifying the notion / the object & reflecting the essential features of the notion named, shades of meaning reflecting its secondary features + additional connotations resulting from typical contexts in which the W is used, its emotional component + stylistic colouring. Connotations are not present in every W. The basis of a synonymic opposition = the denotative component. All the other components can vary = the distinctive features of the synonymic oppositions.

Syns = 2 / more Ws of the same language, belonging to the same part of speech & possessing 1 / more identical / nearly identical denotative meanings, interchangeable, at least in some contexts without any considerable alteration in denotative meaning, differing in morphemic composition, phonemic shape, shades of meaning, connotations, style, valency & idiomatic use. Experience, undergo, sustain, suffer = the notion of experiencing something. Experience = actual living through something. Undergo = what someone / something bears / is subjected to: to undergo an operation, to undergo changes. The French language has undergone considerable & more recent changes since the date when the Normans brought it into England. Undergo can be replaced by suffer / experience without any change of the sentence meaning. The difference is neutralised.

Syns are interchangeable under certain conditions specific to each group. Suffer (‘to undergo’) has connotations of wrong / injury. No semantic neutralisation in phrases suffer atrocities, suffer heavy losses. The implication → the main intransitive meaning of the same W, not synonymous with the group, ‘to feel pain’. Sustain is an official W, suggests undergoing affliction without giving way.

Separate Ws may be compared to whole set expressions. Look forward to, hope, anticipate.

Each Syn group comprises a dominant element = the most general stylistically neutral term.

The Syn dominant ≠ a generic term / hyperonym. A generic term is relative = the name for the notion of the genus as distinguished from the names of the species – hyponyms. Animal is a generic term for wolf, dog, mouse (equonyms). Dog is a generic term for bull-dog, collie, poodle.

The recently introduced term is hyponymy / inclusion: pup is a hyponym of dog, dog is the hyponym of animal. Dog, cat, horse, cow are equonyms & co-hyponyms of animal.

Synonymy differs from hyponymy, a symmetrical relation: if a is a Syn of b, b is the Syn of a. Hyponymy is asymmetrical: if a is a hyponym of b, b is the hyperonym of a.

1 & the same W may belong in its various meanings to several different Syn groups. Appear in ... an old brown cat without a tail appeared from nowhere is Syn with come into sight, emerge. Gr. Greene: parachutists ...appeared stationary; appeared is Syn with look / seem, their common component being ‘give impression of’.

Emotional colouring. A very lonely boy lost between them & aware at ten that his mother had no interest in him, & that his father was a stranger. I shall be alone as my secretary doesn’t come to-day..

Difference in the meaning concerns the notion / the emotion → ideоgraphiс synonyms, ideographic opposition.

In a stylistic opposition the basis of comparison = denotative meaning, the distinctive feature is the presence / absence of a stylistic colouring + difference in emotional colouring.

The study of Syns is a borderline province between semantics & stylistics; semantics & phraseology. Sync pairs wear & tear, pick & choose are numerous in ME phraseology. → All the typical features of idiomatic phrases that ensure their memorability – rhythm, alliteration, rhyme, the use of archaic Ws: hale & hearty, with might & main, nevertheless & notwithst&ing, stress & strain, rack & ruin, really & truly, hue & cry, act & deed.

Others which show neither rhyme nor alliteration, consist of 2 Ws equally modern = pleonastic, emphasise the idea by stating it twice, possess a rhythmical quality which enhances their unity & makes them easily remembered: by leaps & bounds, pure & simple, stuff & nonsense, bright &shining, far & away, proud & haughty.

The semantic difference between Syns + the difference in valency. The difference in distribution: syntactical, morphological, lexical. Bare in reference to persons is used only predicatively, naked occurs both predicatively & attributively. Alone is used only predicatively, solitary & lonely occur in both functions. Begin & commence differ stylistically. Begin is generalised in its lexical meaning & becomes a semi-auxiliary when used with an infinitive. → Begin is the right W before an infinitive even in formal style.