- •4. On the East Side
- •I. Translate the following phrases and sentences from the text:
- •II. Give the principal forms of the following verbs:
- •III. Find in the text English equivalents for the following Russian phrases and sentences. Use them in situations based on the text:
- •IV. Respond to the following questions or statements and correct them(if necessary). When expressing disagreement make sure you begin your answers with such commonly accepted phrases as:
- •V. Answer the following questions:
- •VI. Find evidence in the text to support the following statements:
- •VII. Talk about: a) Erik's summer experience; b) Erik's interview with Professor Fox; c) Professor Fox's first impression of Erik Gorin.
- •VIII. Make up dialogues between:
- •XVIII. Give English equivalents for the following short sentences (see Vocabulary and Ex. Ill):
- •XIX. Suggest Russian equivalents for the word combinations in bold type and explain the use of the synonyms in the following sentences:
- •XX. Read the following sentences paying careful attention to the words and word combinations in bold type. Suggest their Russian equivalents:
- •XXI. Translate the following situations paying careful attention to the words and word combinations in bold type:.
- •XXII. Make up short dialogues using the following structural patterns:
- •XXIII. Read the text and retell it following the points in the outline given below. Make a list of the words and word combinations in the text which you could use to develop each point:
- •XXIV. Make up situations based on the episode from the autobiography of Charlie Chaplin using the following word combinations and structural patterns:
- •1. Clauses of Unreal Condition
- •II. Give the principal forms of the following verbs:
- •III. Find in the text English equivalents for the following Russian phrases and sentences. Use them in situations based on the text:
- •IV. Respond to the following questions or statements and correct them if necessary (see Unit One, Ex. IV, p. 22):
- •V. Answer the following questions:
- •VI. Find evidence in the text to support the following statements:
- •VII. Quote sentences which prove that it is a humorous story.
- •VIII. Make up stories as they might have been told by:
- •XVI. Form as many questions as possible on the topics given below using the pattern to have smth done. Ask your comrades to answer your questions:.
- •XVII. Make up short situations using the following pairs of structural patterns:
- •XVIII. Read (he text and retell it in the form of a story retaining the sentences of unreal condition:
- •XIX. Give English equivalents for the following short sentences (see Vocabulary and Ex. Hi):
- •XX. Suggest Russian equivalents for the words and word combinations in bold type and explain the use of the synonyms in the following sentences:
- •XXI. Read the following sentences paying careful attention to 'he words and word combinations in bold type. Suggest their Russian equivalent:
- •XXII. Translate the following situations. Use the active vocabulary of Unit Two for the words and word combinations in bold type:
- •XXIII. Make up short dialogues using the following structural patterns:
- •XXIV Read the story and retell it following the outline given below. Make a list of the words and word combinations in the text which you could use to develop each point:
- •XXV. Make tip situations based on the story "The-Legend of Sleepy Hollow" using the following word combinations and structural patterns:
- •I. Translate the following sentences and situations:
- •II. Render into English:
- •Vocabulary extension
- •1. Sentences with /Is-clauses
- •2. Had better, would rather
- •3. The Absense of Article with Nouns in Apposition
- •Vocabulary
- •I wonder who he is, what he wants, why he is here, whether he will come again:
- •I. Translate the following sentences from the text:
- •II. Give the principal forms of the following verbs?
- •III. Find in the text English equivalents for the following Russian phrases and sentences and use them in situations based on the text:.
- •IV. Respond to the following questions or statements and correct them if necessary (see Unit One, Ex. IV, p. 22):
- •V. Answer the following questions:
- •VI Find evidence in the text to support the following statements:
- •VII Make up stories as they might have been told by:
- •VIII Make up dialogues between:
- •XV. Respond to the following statements, questions or requests using had better or would rather. Give two variants wherever possible. Add a sentence or two to make the situation clear:
- •XVI. Give English equivalents for the following short sentences (see Vocabulary and Ex. Ill):
- •XVII. Read the following sentences paying careful attention to the words and word combinations in bold type and suggest their Russian equivalents:
- •XVIII.Analyse the use of the tenses in the following sentences. Translate them .Into Russian:.
- •XIX. Translate the following situations. Use the active vocabulary of Unit Three for the words and word combinations in bold type;
- •XX. Read the story and retell it Following the outline given below. Make a list of the words in the text which you could use to develop each point:.
- •XXI. Make up situations based on the story "The Tattoo" using the following word combinations and structural patterns:
- •XXII. Make up sentences based on the story "The Tattoo" using clauses of unreal condition.
- •I. Use one of the patterns - to do smth, to have smth done, to want/need doing smth - in your answers to the question: What would you do or say or ask if....:
- •II. Translate the following sentences and situations a) into Russian::
- •III. Render into English:
- •Vocabulary extension
- •1. Read the following text and translate the word combinations given below each point of the outline. Retell the text following the points:
- •II. Read the text and retell it in the form of a story. Enlarge on the story making use of the words and word combinations from the previous text "Being hi";
- •III. Read the text and write down the words and word combinations connected will; dentistry giving their Russian equivalents. Retell the text in brief;
- •Vocabulary
- •I. Translate the following phrases and sentences from the text:;
- •II. Give the principal forms of the following verbs:
- •III. Find in the text English equivalents for the following Russian phrases and use them in situations based on the text:;
- •IV. Develop the thought expressed in each sentence to bring out the meaning of the words in bold type:
- •V. Give a neutral variant for each of the following:
- •VI. Answer the following questions:
- •VII. Translate the following sentences using the structural patterns:
- •VIII. Give English equivalents for the following short sentences (see Vocabulary and Ex. Ill):
- •IX. Read the following sentences paying careful attention to the words and word combinations in bold type. Suggest their Russian equivalents:
- •X. Make up short dialogues using the following structural patterns:
- •1. Sentences with so fAaf-clauses ... Move his chair so that he can see
- •Vocabulary
- •I. Translate the following phrases and sentences from the text:
- •VI. Find evidence in the texts (in both parts) to support the following statements:
- •VII. Give a detailed description of each of the following episodes in the third person (Texts 1, 2)I
- •VIII. Make up stories as they might have been told by:
- •IX. Make up character-sketches of Mr. Drake and Mrs. Thayer. Make a list of words and word combinations to help you describe the characters.
- •X. Suggest a title for the story and give your reasons.
- •XI. Translate the following sentences using the structural patterns?
- •XII. Give English equivalents for the following Russian short sentences (see Vocabulary and Ex. III):
- •XIII. Read the following sentences paying careful attention to the words and word combinations in bold type. Suggest their Russian equivalents:
- •XIV. Translate the following situations. Use the active vocabulary of Unit Four for the words and word combinations in bold type;
- •XV. Read the story and give full answers to the questions that follow the text. Make a list of the words in the text which you could use in your answers:
- •XVI. Make up situations based on the text "One Coat of White" using the following word combinations and structural patterns:
- •XVII. Read (he story and write out English and American equivalents for the Russian words given after the text:
- •Vocabulary extension
- •I. Read the text paying careful attention to the words and word combinations in bold type. Give their Russian equivalents. Get ready to discuss the problem:
- •III. Comment on the following statements concerning visiting, tact, manners (use facts from the texts to prove, illustrate or refute them):
- •IV. Topics for discussion:
- •V. Read the text and retell it:
- •VI. Give a talk on the difference between be and ae, Make up a written outline to guide you.
- •VII. Read the poem. Try to trace the similarity in the views of the author of the poem and the main character of the story "Liberty Hall". Could you accept this attitude towards life?
- •I. Interpret the words given in bold type:
- •II. Answer the following questions:
- •III. Point out the main thought expressed by the poet in each of the three stanzas of the poem.
- •IV. Memorize the poem.
- •V.Read extracts from the following poems. Point out their lexical and syntactical peculiarities using the commentary given to the poem "The Song of the Wage-Slave":
- •VI. State what kinds of relations form the basis for each case of metonymy in the text of the poems "To the Men of England", 'The Song of the Shirt" and "Sons of Poverty".
- •Vocabulary
- •II. Give (he principal forms of the following verbs?
- •III. Find in the text English equivalents for the following Russian phrases and sentences and use them in situations based on the text:
- •IV. Answer the following questions.
- •V. Mke up stories as they might have been told by:
- •VI. Find evidence in the text to support the following statements:
- •VII. Suggest a title for the text and give reasons for your choice.
- •VIII. Give ail possible Russian equivalents for the parts in bold type;
- •IX. Translate the following sentences using the structural patterns:
- •X. Give English equivalents for the following short sentences (see Vocabulary and; Ex. Ill):
- •XI. Suggest Russian equivalents for the word combinations in bold type and explain the use of the synonyms in the following sentences:
- •XII. Translate the following situations. Use the active vocabulary of Unit Six for the words and word combinations in bold type:
- •XIII. Make up short dialogues using the following structural patterns:
- •XV. Make up situations based on the story "Patients Needed" using the following word combinations and structural patterns:
- •Vocabulary extension
- •I. Reproduce the following situations based on the works of famous English and American authors. Make sure that you use the active vocabulary:
- •II. Insert prepositions if necessary:
- •III. Read the story and retell it. Then, using it as a basis, think of sentences which will contain clauses of unreal condition:
- •IV. Read the text and translate it into Russian paying careful attention to the use of the modal verbs. Make up another dialogue with the same structural patterns:
- •V. Respond to the following statements expressing probability, doubt, incredulity or near certainty;
- •VI. Change the following sentences using didn't have to or needn't have done to express absence of necessity:
- •VII. Revise the texts included in Units One-Six. Get ready to answer the following questions:
- •VIII. Make up dialogues on the following topics:
- •IX. Translate the following situalions in written form:
- •Vocabulary
- •II. Look up the synonyms to snatch, to seize, to grip (схватить) in an English-English dictionary or a reference book and explain the difference between them.
- •I. Translate the following sentences or parts of sentences from the text:)
- •II. Find English equivalents in the text for the following Russian word combinations, phrases and sentences:
- •III. Reproduce situations from the text using the following word combinations:
- •IV. Make up disjunctive questions or wrong statements covering the contents of the story and ask your comrades to respond to them (see Unit One, Ex. IV, p. 22).
- •V. Answer the following questions:
- •VI. Find evidence in the text to support the following statements:
- •VII. Make up stories as they might have been told by:
- •VIII. Make up dialogues between:
- •IX. Make up character-sketches of Mrs. Packletide and Miss Mebbin.
- •I. Translate the following sentences using the structural patterns:
- •II. Make up short situations suggested by the following sentences paying careful attention to the word combinations in bold type:
- •III. Translate the following sentences paying careful attention to the parts in bold type:
- •IV. Read the sentences and explain the use of the synonyms to snatch, to seize, to grip:
- •V. Read the story and retell it following the outline given below. Make a list of the words in the text to develop each point:
- •VI. Make up situations based on the story "His Wedded Wife" using the following word combinations:
- •VII. Render into English:
- •VIII. Read the following sentences and suggest Russian equivalents for the parts in bold type:
- •1. Sentences with before-clauses
- •2. Infinitive of Subsequent Action
- •Vocabulary
- •I. Translate the following sentences into Russian paying careful attention to the word combinations in bold type:
- •II. Look up the verb to change in an English-English dictionary and write down its meanings. In which of the meanings is it synonymous to the verb to alter? Explain the difference. Give examples.
- •I. Translate into Russian passages from the text which begin and end as follows:
- •II. Find in the text English equivalents for the following Russian phrases and senr tences:
- •III. Reproduce situations from the text using the following word combinations
- •IV. Make up disjunctive questions or wrong statements covering the contents of the story and ask your comrades to respond to them (see Unit One, Ex. IV, p. 22).
- •V. Answer the following questions:
- •II. Translate the following sentences using the structural patterns:
- •III. Make op situations suggested by the following sentences paying careful attention to the word combinations in bold type:
- •IV. Translate the following sentences paying careful attention to the parts in bold type:
- •V. Read the following sentences paying carefuJ attention to the words and word combinations in bold type. Suggest their Russian equivalents:
- •VI. Make up short dialogues using the following structural patterns:
- •VII. Read the story and retell it following the outline given below. Make a list of the words and word combinations in the text which you could use to develop each point:
- •VIII. Make up sentences based on the story "The Pendulum" using the following word combinations and structural patterns:
- •IX. Render into English:
- •X. Read the following sentences and suggest Russian equivalents for the parts in bold type:
- •1. Absolute Nominative Constructions
- •2. There's not a...
- •3. Participle I as Adverbial Modifier
- •Vocabulary
- •I. Translate the following sentences paying careful attention to the words and word combinations in bold type. Give possible variants:
- •II. Look up the meanings of the verbs to divide and to share as used in the following sentences and say how they differ:
- •I. Translate into Russian passages from the text which begin and end as follows;
- •II. Find in the text English equivalents for the following Russian phrases and sentences:
- •III. Reproduce situations from the text using the following words and word combinations:
- •IV. Make up disjunctive questions or wrong statements covering the contents of the story and ask your comrades to respond to them (see Unit One, Ex. IV, p. 22).
- •V. Answer the following questions:
- •II. Translate the following sentences paying careful attention to the absolute nominative constructions:
- •III. Translate the following sentences using the structural patterns:
- •IV. Translate the following sentences paying careful attention to the parts in bold type:
- •V. Read the following sentences carefully and suggest Russian equivalents for the word combinations in bold type:
- •VI. Translate the following sentences using the verbs to share and to divide:
- •VII. Make up short dialogues using the following structural patterns:
- •VIII. Read the story and retell it following the outline given below. Make a list of the words in the text which you could use to develop each point:
- •IX. Make up situations based on the story "The Boy Next Door" using the following word combinations and structural patterns:
- •X. Read the following sentences and suggest Russian equivalents for the parts in bold type:
- •I. Translate the following situations paying careful attention to the words and word combinations in bold type:
- •II. Render into English:
- •I. Interpret the following sentences:
- •II. Ahswer the following questions:
- •III. Learn the poem by heart.
- •IV. The following are three translations of John Barleycorn. Which variant do you prefer? Give reasons for your choice:
- •V. Give the metrical scheme used in the following verses. Point out all the violations of the metre;
- •2. Clauses of Real Condition
- •Vocabulary
- •1. Translate the following phrases and sentences from the text:
- •II. Find in the text English equivalents for the following Russian phrases and sentences:
- •III. Reproduce situations from the text using the following words and word combinations:
- •IV. Answer the following questions:
- •II. Make up situations suggested by the following sentences paying careful attention to the word combinations in bold type:
- •III Translate the following sentences paying careful attention to the parts in bold type:.
- •IV. Make up short dialogues using the following structural patterns:".
- •V. Read the following sentences and suggest Russian equivalents for the parts in bold type:
- •1. Sentences with while-clauses
- •Vocabulary
- •1. Translate the following sentences from the text:
- •II. Give English equivalents for the following sentences:
- •III. Reproduce situations from the text using the following words and word combinations:
- •IV. Answer the following questions:
- •V. Find evidence in the text to support tfie following statements:
- •VI. Make an outline of the text and retell it following your points.
- •VII. Read the sentences with while-clauses. State the meaning of while and the time relations of the actions:
- •VIII. Translate the following sentences using the structural patterns:
- •IX. Make up short situations using the following gerundial phrases?
- •XI. Make up situations suggested by the following sentences paying careful attention to the word combinations in bold type:
- •XII. Read the following sentences and suggest Russian equivalents for the parts in bold type:
- •XIII. Render into English:
- •XIV. Read the following excerpt and retell it in brief:
- •I. Translate into Russian the following sentences and passages from the text which begin and end as follows:
- •II. Find English equivalents for the following Russian phrases and sentences;
- •III. Reproduce situations from the text using the following word combinations!
- •IV. Answer the following questions:
- •IX. Read the following sentences and commeqf on the character of the semantic relations between the components of the verb-postpositive phrases in bold type. Give their Russian equivalents:
- •X. Translate the Following sentences paying careful attention to the parts in bold type:
- •XI. Read the following sentences and suggest Russian equisralents for the verb-postpositive phrases in bold type:
- •XIV. Read the following excerpts and retell them in brief:
- •1. Translate the following sentences and situations:
- •III. Read the end of the story and retell it using the following verb-postpositive phrases wherever possible. Reread the whole story and discuss the title:
- •I. Reproduce the following situations. Make sure that you use the active vocabulary:
- •II. Fill in prepositions and postpositives:
- •III. Point out the structural patterns and explain their use. Translate the sentences into Russian:
- •IV. Revise the texts included in Units Seven-Thirteen. Get ready to answer the following questions:
- •VI. Choose any 10 word combinations out of the following list and "rite sentences (or short situations) in Russian based on the story "The Boatswain's Mate". Discuss the sentences in class:
- •VII. Make up dialogues on the following topics:
- •VIII. Translate the following situations in written form:
- •I. Supply a title to the story and give reasons for your choice.
- •II. Pick out sentences in the story illustrating the various types of if-clauses.
- •III. Make up 5 Russian sentences with clauses of unreal condition based on the story. Ask your comrades to translate them into English.
- •I. What helps you guess the author of the passage? What is the author's name?
- •II. How do you know that it is a passage from a detective story?
- •III. Have you read any short stories by the author? Tell one of them.
- •I. What do we learn from the extract about the author's way of reading? What did he gain from such reading?
- •II. Why did he call himself a bad reader?
- •I. What book does the passage come from?
- •II. What do you think of the man? What made him such an extraordinary person? Why did he attract other people?
- •I. What is the title of the story? Who is its author?
- •Il. What state do you think Johnsy was in? Why did she watch the dry leaves falling?
- •III. What happened later?
- •I. What book does the extract come from? Comment on the language.
- •II.How did the man happen to find himself in the gloomy passages alone and half-dressed?
- •III. Write a simplified version of the passage using your active whenever possible.
- •I. Pick out all the proverbs in the story and give their Russian equivalents.
- •II. Write an end to the story using some of the following proverbs;
- •I. What story does the passage fit into?
- •II. What do you think the cause of Mr. Jones's illness was?
- •I. How does (he passage fit info the story "One Coat of White"?
- •II. Bring out the meaning of "People don’t often look their business". Do you agree to the statement? Give examples to justify jour point of view.
- •I. How does the author characterize a modern disease the name of which is travel? Are you taken with a similar disease when your summer or winter vacations are coming?
- •II. What aim do you set yourself when you travel or go hiking?
- •III. What thoughts in the extract strike you as most humorous?
- •I. What efforts at self-improvement have you ever made? Were they successful?
- •II. Write a short story about one of your efforts at self-improvement and what came of it.
- •III. Pick out words and word combinations in the story which you think are used by the author to achieve a humorous effect.
- •I. Make up a few questions on the passage and ask your comrades to answer them.
- •II. Think of a number of statements concerning events in the text and ask your comrades to find evidence in the text to support them.
- •I. What story is the passage taken from? How does it fit into it?
- •II. What did the girl look like as she hurried to the painter's studio? What do you know about her from the rest of the story?
- •III. What city is described in the passage? What similes help you guess? What do you know about the city?
- •I. Read and translate the text.
- •II. Give English equivalents for the following Russian word combinations and phrases:
- •III. Answer the following questions. Make use of the word combinations listed in brackets:
- •IV. Translate the following sentences using words and word combinations from the text:
- •V. Make a written translation of the following passages:
- •VI. Reproduce the following passages:
- •VII. Speak on the Soviet Union's achievements in different spheres of life. Make use of the text and the additional passages given in Exercises V, VI.
VI. Give a talk on the difference between be and ae, Make up a written outline to guide you.
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VII. Read the poem. Try to trace the similarity in the views of the author of the poem and the main character of the story "Liberty Hall". Could you accept this attitude towards life?
IT'S NEVER FAIR WEATHER
By O. Nash (1902-1971)
I do not like the winter wind That whistles from the North. My upper teeth and those beneath, They jitter back and forth. Oh, some are hanged, and some are skinned And others face the winter wind. I do not like the summer sun That scorches the horizon. Though some delight in Fahrenheit, To me it's deadly prizen. I think life would be more fun Without the summering summer Sun. I do not like the signs of spring, The fever and the chills, The icy mud, the puny bud, The frozen daffodils. Let other poets gaily sing; I do not like the signs of spring. I do not like the foggy fall That strips the maples bare; The_radiator's mating call, The dank, rheumatic air. I fear that taken all in all, I do not like the foggy fall. The winter sun, of course, is kind, And summer wind's a savior, And I'll merrily sing of fall and spring When they're on their good behaviour. But otherwise I see no reason To speak in praise of any season. |
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UNIT FIVE
THE SONG OF THE WAGE-SLAVE
By Ernest Jones (1819-1869)
The land it is the landlord's, The trader's is the sea, The ore the usurer's coffer fills - But what remains for me? |
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The engine whirls for master's craft; The steel shines to defend, With labour's arms, what labour raised, For labour's foe to spend. The camp, the pulpit, and the law For rich men's sons are free; Theirs, theirs the learning, art, and arms - But what remains for me? The coming hope, the future day, When wrong to right shall bow, And hearts that have the courage, man, To make that future now. I pay for all their learning, I toil for all their ease; They render back, in coin for coin, Want, ignorance, disease: Toil, toil - and then a cheerless home, Where hungry passions cross; Eternal gain to them that give To me eternal loss: The hour of leisured happiness The rich alone may see; The playful child, the smiling wife - But what remains for me? They render back, those rich men, A pauper's niggard fee, Mayhap a prison, - then a grave And think they are quits with me; But not a fond wife's heart that breaks, A poor man's child that dies, We score not on our hollow cheeks And in our sunken eyes; We read it there, where'er we meet, And as the sun we see, Each asks, "The rich have got the earth, But what remains for me?" We bear the wrong in silence, We store it in our brain; They think us dull, they think us dead, But we shall rise again: A trumpet through the lands will ring; A heaving through the mass; A trampling through their palaces Until they break like glass: We'll cease to weep by cherished graves, From lonely homes we'll flee; |
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And still, as rolls our million march, Its watchword brave shall be - The coming hope, the future day, When wrong to right shall bow, And hearts that have the courage, man, To make that future now. |
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COMMENTARY
1. The English literary language in the course of its historical development has evolved various styles each of which has some characteristic features.
The features may form a more or less definite system tending to establish norms for word usage, rhythmical arrangement ofs peech, syntactical constructions, the character of figurative expression, etc. Such systems, differing from one another in the manner in which the resources of language are employed, are called the functional styles of literary language (FS).
In the English literary language the following FSs can be distinguished: the FS of the language of belles letters (poetry, emotive prose and drama); that of the newspaper, of science, of publicistics, of official document.
Some of these styles are confined to definite spheres of human activity, for example, the FS of the language of science or of official documents. Other styles aim at evoking emotional reactions in the reader or the listener. Among these styles are the FSs of oratorical and poetical language.
The aims set by the FS of poetical language predetermine the character and peculiarities of the lexical, syntactical and phonetic expressive means used. Poetical speech is always emotionally coloured. It is also distinguished from prose speech by its rhythmical arrangement and by special requirements of euphony.
Rhythm and rhyme alone, however, do not make poetry. The essential difference between prose and poetry lies in the manner of expressing' ideas. In poetical language thoughts and feelings are
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expressed through the medium of images. This ensures an emotional perception of the idea expressed. The language of prose conveys the idea directly to the mind of the reader.
Some of the lexical, syntactical and phonetic peculiarities of the FS of the language of English poetry will be discussed in the commentary below.
2. Most of the expressive means used in poetry exist in the emotional colloquial speech of the given language. They are not created by poets. The peculiar features of emotional colloquial speech are typified and strengthened in poetry. Typical of excited speech for example is the use of two subjects, one a noun and the other a pronoun, to the same verb, e. g.
"Oh, that man, he is so poor."
This feature of emotional speech is used as a special poetic device to achieve emphasis. Examples may be seen in the first line of the poem:
"The land it is the landlord's" |
and in the line:
"They render back, those rich men." |
3. Another syntactical device frequently used in the FS of the language of English poetry is inversion. Poets generally use inversion for the purpose of placing the most important words in the most prominent places, that is, the beginning or the end of the line.
Inversion breaks the customary connection of the word with another word or words, and it gets special emphasis. In the text of the poem we find the following cases of inversion:
"The ore the usurer's coffer fills -" "The hour of leisured happiness The rich alone may see." "And as the sun we see, Each asks,.." and others. |
4. Elliptical sentences (i. e. sentences in which one or several parts of a sentence are felt as missing) are also typical of emotionally tense speech. They are frequently used in poetry and are therefore regarded as a peculiarity of poetical syntax. In colloquial speech, which is usually a dialogue, elliptical sentences are considered to be the norm of oral intercourse. The missing parts are easily guessed because the situation in which the conversation takes place suggests them. However, when elliptical sentences are used in poetry they become special stylistic devices aimed at making the utterance emphatic.
In the text of the poem there are several elliptical sentences, e. g.
"Theirs, theirs the learning, art, and arms -" "The playful child, the smiling wife -" |
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In the first sentence the link-verb are is missing, in the second, there will be is missing.
"The hour of leisured happiness The rich alone may see; The playful child, the smiling wife - But what remains for me?" |
The abstract notion expressed in the first line is developed by concrete images of playful child and smiling wife in the third line.
5. As has been pointed out above, thoughts and feelings may be expressed through images. These images are visual, aural, tactile, taste and smell perceptions of natural, concrete phenomena represented in language terms. This means that images are creations of the mind, i.e., they are perceived not directly but indirectly.
The peculiarity of language images lies in the fact that a word-image is made to refer to the object it generally denotes and to another object or notion thus causing a simultaneous realization of two corresponding meanings: a dictionary one and one imposed on the word by the context. If this simultaneous realization of two meanings is based on the identification of the two corresponding objects or notions we call such word a metaphor, for example:
"He is in the sunset of his days." |
The word sunset is a metaphor because there is identification of the two notions: old age and the end of the day.
Compare with the Russian заря жизни where the word заря is used metaphorically. The identification is based on the likeness between заря - dawn - the beginning of the day and the notions of hope and joy associated with it - and the first stages of one's life.
Identification which is based on certain relations between the notions is called metonymy. Metonymy may be based on different relations, for example:
1) the relation of proximity, e.g.
The kettle boils (the water in the kettle). Compare with the Russian: чайник кипит.
The game table was gay and happy (the people around the table). Compare with the Russian: Весь зал аплодировал (люди, находящиеся в зале).
2) the relation of the part and the whole, e.g.
a fleet of fifty sails (ships)
a herd of twenty head (cows or other animals). Compare with the Russian: 20 голов скота.
3) the relation between the symbol of a notion and the notion itself, e. g.
"From the cradle to the grave." (Shelley) (From childhood to death)
4) the relation between the material and the thing made of it, e.g. glasses (spectacles), canvas (sails) and other kinds of relations.
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In the text of the poem we can find a number of cases in which metaphor and metonymy convey the ideas of the poet in figurative language. For example, in the sentence:
"The coming hope, the future day, When wrong to right shall bow" |
the word bow is used metaphorically, that is, two meanings of the word are realized simultaneously, the dictionary meaning кланяться and a contextual meaning to be understood here as subdue (подавлять).
Such words as ore in the sentence "The ore the usurer's coffer fills" and the words camp, pulpit and several other words in the poem are examples of metonymy.
The meaning of the word ore is a mineral containing a useful metal. But in the text of the poem this word stands for gold or money.
The dictionary meaning of the word camp is a place where troops are lodged in tents. But in the text of the poem this word stands also for military service in the rank of officers.
The dictionary meaning of the word pulpit is a raised platform supplied with a desk from which the preacher in a church delivers the sermon. But in the text of the poem this word also stands for Иге office of a clergyman.
Consequently, in conveying the idea that all the riches of England and all the rights belong to the capitalists, the poet uses both abstract notions such as learning, art, law, etc., and images which are built through metaphors and metonymies, such as engine, steel and camp.
6. Verse is rhythmically arranged speech. As you read this poem you will notice that you stress syllables at regular intervals, according to the beat or measure of the verse. By measure or metre is meant the arrangement of syllables in a regular order to form a pattern. The syllables are arranged in groups that are similarly accented. These constitute the lines of verse.
In the poem "The Song of the Wage-Slave" we feel a regular alternation of stressed and unstressed syllables. The combination of one stressed syllable with either one or two unstressed syllables is called a foot. The number of feet in a verse varies in different kinds of poetry.
The feet in the poem you are studying are arranged according to the following scheme:
|
Thus the first line of the poem "The land it is the landlord's" can be graphically represented as follows:
Such metre is called the iambus.
If we read this verse in a slow, sing-song manner, we shall, of course, stress each syllable which should be stressed according to
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the scheme. This kind of reading is generally practised in order to define the character of the metre. But poetry is not sung today. Therefore words which are generally not stressed in ordinary speech should not be stressed in poetry either, unless the sense requires that the word should be stressed. Thus, in reading (or reciting) poetry we may violate the metrical scheme. Hence, the first two lines of the poem should be read in the following manner:
In English poetry we also find the following metres:
the trochee ['trouki:] consisting of a stressed syllable, followed by an unstressed syllable , as in the word unit;
the dactyl [dæktil] consisting of a stressed syllable, followed by two unstressed syllables , as in the word carelessness;
the amphibrach ['æmfibræk] consisting of an unstressed syllable, followed by a stressed and one unstressed syllable, as in the word important ;
the anapest ['ænəpist] consisting of two unstressed syllables, followed by one stressed syllable, as in the word understand .
7. In the functional style of the language of English poetry there exists a special group of words which are called poetical and highly literary words. They are not used in ordinary literary English and are preserved in the English vocabulary for special purposes. Highly literary words are used in elevated speech; poetical words and phrases are mostly archaic or obsolete words of rare circulation in Standard English, and special forms of existing words (most of which were in use in earlier periods of the development of the English language).
In the text of this poem we find several such words, for example: craft, foe, toil, mayhap, where'er. The word craft comes from the Old English word cræft meaning strength, power, force. This word has survived in Modern English in such compound words as aircraft, handicraft, or such combinations as landing craft. It is not rarely used in its original sense in present-day English. However, in Modern English the word can be used as a synonym of skill or art applied to deceive.
Mayhap is shortened from it may hap. Hap corresponds to the modern verb happen. The noun hap in Old English meant chance, good luck, fortune.
8. "... in coin for coin" is a phrase the meaning of which in the context is fully, as pay.
9. labour's arm
The Possessive Case is usually associated with nouns denoting living beings, e. g. ... the trader's, the landlord's, the usurer's, etc. However, it is also used with certain abstract nouns, especially in poetry, thus achieving personification, e.g. Duty's call.
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10. ... we score not on our hollow cheeks
Note that the negative is formed here without the auxiliary do. This is an archaic form and is found nowadays only in poetry, e.g. It fell to earth I knew not where (Longfellow).
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EXERCISES