4. Ответьте на вопросы.

1. What can "torts" include?

2. Give some example of wrongs that can be both civil and criminal in nature.

1. In what case will the defendant be ordered to pay compensatory datfi- ages and punitive damages?

2. What is commonly believed an amount of punitive damages ("soecial

damages")?

5. What is the essential purpose of the law of torts?

6. In what aspect is the function of the law of torts distinct from that of criminal law?

Text 2

KINDS OF TORTS

There are two chief categories of torts: intentional torts and torts resulting from negligence. The core element in an intentional tort is an intent, or purpose, to cause harm to another. The law provides that a person has intent if he or she desires to cause the consequences of his or her act, or believes that the consequences are substantially certain result from the act. Intentional torts fall into two categories: torts against a person and torts against property.

Negligence refers to the failure of a person to exercise sufficient care in his or her conduct. When a person's conduct falls below the reasonable expectation of society and causes foreseeable harm to another, the person has acted negligently. Society's expect known in torts based on negligence as the legal duty of care — is that an individual reasonably prudent and careful person would act in similar circumstances. A person can act negligently by doing something that a reasonable person would not do or by failing something that a reasonable person would do. The law does not require that the person has an intent to cause harm.

Notes

intentional tort — умышленный (преднамеренный) проступок result from negligence — происходить (проистекать) из-за

небрежности, халатности intent — намерение purpose — цель

cause harm to another - причинять вред другому лицу the law provides — закон предусматривает desire to cause the consequences of his or her act — желать вызвать (получить) определенные последствия (результаты) его или ее действий

the consequences are substantially certain to result from the act —

результатом действия являются неизбежные последствия fall into - делиться, распадаться

torts against a person — нарушения против личности torts against property — нарушения против собственности refer to - относиться, принадлежать

the failure of a person to exercise sufficient care in his or her conduct —

неспособность личности проявлять разумную осторожность в поведении

fall below the reasonable expectation of society — зд. выходить за

благоразумные рамки, накла­дываемые обществом cause foreseeable harm to another — нанести сознательный ущерб

другому лицу

act negligently — поступать безответственно torts based on negligence — правонарушения в результате неосто­рожности (халатности, небрежности) the legal duty of care — юридическая обязанность соблюдать

осторожность reasonably prudent and careful person — разумно осмотрительный

и осторожный человек in similar circumstances — в подобных обстоятельствах

Упражнения

*5. Найдите в тексте, переведите на русский язык и употребите в собственных предложениях следующие словосочетания.

1. resulting from; 2. the core element; 3. to cause harm; 4. to believe; 5. the consequences; 6. certain result; 7. to fall into; 8. the failure; 9. foreseeable; 10. based on; 11. prudent; 12. to act negligently; 13. to have an intent

*6. Составьте словосочетания, используя слова из обеих колонок.

1. torts a. sufficient care

2. torts b. resulting from negligence

3. to cause с harm

4. to fall into d. international

5. to exercise e. two categories

6. to act f. negligently

*7. Выберите определение для каждого из следующих юридических терминов.

1. tort a. a German or Austrian cake

b. a debt owed to the sovereign с a civil wrong or private injury not based in contract law d. an involuntary action which amounts to a criminal offense because of an actual or potential injury

212

243

2. assault a. a mineral from the dead sea

b. a military invasion с the civil wrong of inflicting actual bodily injury on

another d. the act of intentionally placing another person in feaj

of bodily injury

3. punitive a. damages to compensate for injury damages b. damages in a civil suit that are meant to punish the

wrongdoer for causing injury с "nominal" or minimal damages d. non-monetary damages, such as an injunction (injunctive relief) or "specific performance" of a contract obligation

4. intentional a. a cause of action that allows after a person is insulte infliction b. the grief a child will bring upon his parents

с a cause of action for recovery when a defendant's behavior toward a plaintiff is so outrageous and extreme that it causes serious emotional distress d. striking another person intentionally

5. false a. placing a convicted defendant in a maximum security imprisonment prison

b. description of when the judge and jury disagree about

a sentence

с a criminal imprisonment for civil wrong d. unlawful confinement of a person against that

person's will

6. negligence a. forgetfulness

b. willful misconduct

с necessity defense

d. breach of a duty that proximately caused an injury

7. trespass a. the act of entering another's land without permission

b. a motion before trial in a tort action

с when a lawyer invades the personal life of a client

d. an interference with one's enjoyment of life

8. intent a. where desert nomads live

b. the name given to the action that a person performs

while committing a tort с the desire to cause a certain result or to act with

substantial knowledge that an injury will result d. the singular form of the word 'intense'

9. reasonably a. a risk taker

prudent person b. an investor in the stock market

с a fictional man or woman whose anticipated reactions to certain events will provide the standard for determining a defendant's liability in a tort action d. the actual conduct of a particular defendant in a civil or criminal action