78 Chapter 4
5. Because there is no exact definition for biological aging, it is difficult to determine when the phenomenon begins.
a. while
b. though
c. due to
d. since
6. Roget's Thesaurus, a collection of English words and phrases, is arranged by the ideas they express rather than by alphabetical order.
a. as well as
b. unless
c. together with
d. instead of
7. She got the job in that she was the best candidate.
a. although
b. as soon as
c. because
d. while
8. I succeeded because of your help.
a. since
b. in spite of
c. nevertheless
d. thanks to
9. Another indicator is provided by our committee.
a. a different
b. one more
c. other
d. the other
10. Despite our efforts, we failed.
a. because of
b. owing to
c. as opposed to
d. in spite of
11. These two concepts are different, even though they use the same word.
a. because
b. although
c. however
d. therefore
12. In an identical manner, we see that this law holds.
a. regularly
b. similarly
c. finally
d. gradually
13. In general, it is possible to be more specific.
a. furthermore
b. in short
c. for instance
d. on the whole
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14. The evidence is compelling, albeit indirect.
a. hence
b. although
c. on the other hand
d. because
15. The scope of application of photographic technigues has expanded tremendously.
a. diversely
b. obviously
c. gradually
d. enormously
16. He expressed it either with deliberate intent, or spontaneously.
a. on purpose
b. by contrast
c. with respect
d. on the other hand
17. This technique should be differentiated from the previous one.
a. be compared with
b. be opposed to
c. not be confused with
d. not be replaced by
18. Like everything else in office technology, telephone systems are getting smaller and more powerful.
a. smarter
b. more space-saving .
c. cost-effective
d. less expensive
19. In a broad sense, this application is quite possible.
a. alternatively
b. in general
c. on the contrary
d. from now on
20. I'm concerned solely for your future.
a. solitary
b. not only
c. somehow
d. only
21. For all its many problems, the United States system of education has achieved much.
a. still
b. as opposed to
c. in spite of
d. by turns
80 Chapter 4 Noteworthy
«When we begin the study of any science, we are in a situation similar to that of children; and the course by which we have to advance is precisely the same which nature follows in the formation of their ideas».
Antoine Lament Lavoisier
Antoine Laurent Lavoisier (1743 — 1794) in the preface to «Elements of Chemistry». (Lavoisier originated the oxygen theory of combustion and is considered the father of modern chemistry).
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Chapter 5
Focus on:
Of Truth and Theories Avoiding Sexist Language
Grammar: Mood.
82 Chapter 5
TextA Read the text and be ready to answer the questions that follow.
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We regard as «true» the simplest explanation that satisfies all the data we have about any given thing. This principle is known as Occam's razor; it is named after a 14th century British philosopher who originally proposed it. Without this rule, we would always be subject to such complicated doubts that we would accept |
razor — укр. бритва subject to — tending or likely (to have), causing to experience укр. зазнавати complicated — difficult to understand or deal with укр. складний doubt — (a feeling of) uncertainty of belief or opinion, lack of confidence укр. сумнів | |
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nothing as known. Occam's razor sometimes called the Principle of Simplicity, is a razor in a sense that it is a cutting edge that allows distinction to be made among theories. Science is based on Occam's razor, though we don't usually think about it. Sometimes, something that we call «true» might be more accurately described as a theory. The scientific method is based on hypotheses and theories. A hypothesis is an explanation of why something happens or happened. When it is shown that the hypothesis actually explains most of the facts known, then we may call it a theory. We usually test a theory by seeing whether it can predict things that were not previously observed, and then by trying to confirm whether the predictions are valid. An example of a theory is the Newtonian theory of gravitation, which for many years explained almost all | ||
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the planetary motions. Only a small discrepancy in the orbit of Mercury remained unexplained. In 1916, Albert Einstein presented a general theory of relativity as a better explanation of gravitation. The theory explained the discrepancy in Mercury's orbit. When his predictions were verified, his theory was widely accepted. Is Newton's theory «true»? Yes, in most regions of space. Is Einstein's theory«true»? We |
to confirm — to give support or certainty to (a fact, statement etc.) e.g. by providing more proof or by stating that something is true or correct Synonyms: to verify, to prove, to corroborate укр. підтверджувати, стверджувати valid — firmly based on what is true or reasonable укр. дійсний. Antonym — invalid discrepancy (between) — difference, lack of agreement or similarity — укр. розбіжність, розходження, невідповідність | |
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say so, although we may also think that one day a new theory will come along that is more general than Einstein's in the same way that Einstein's is more general than Newton's. | ||
1. What is specific about «Occam's razor»?
2. What is the correlation between the hypothesis and the theory?
3. What are possible ways of testing a theory?
Exercise 1. Give English equivalents of:
сумніви; найпростіше пояснення; вперше запропонувати принцип; невелика розбіжність; більш точний опис; краще пояснення; широко визнавати; загальна теорія відносності; підтверджувати; фактично пояснювати; дійсний.
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NOTE Probability may be expressed in English in many different ways (see Expression of Conditions (chapter 5), Modal Verbs (chapter 6). Mind several linguistic devices that usually express probability (for a more detailed list see appendix X).
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(It is) possible/probable (that) possibly/probably можливо, ймовірно
(It is) likely (that) схоже |
(It is) impossible (that)
(It is) unlikely (that) несхоже | |||
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There is |
strong high |
probability |
that | |
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definite |
possibility |
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дуже ймвірно | ||||
Exercise 2. Read the text. Find linguistic devices expressing probability and hypotheses. Render the passage into Ukrainian.
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In 1705, the English astronomer Edmond Halley applied the new theory of gravity developed by his friend Isaac Newton to determine the orbits of comets from observations of their positions in the sky. He reported that the orbits of the bright comets that had appeared in 1531, 1607, and | |
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1682 were about the same. He was troubled, though, that the intervals between appearances were not quite equal. The scientist resolved this difficulty by analyzing the effect on the comet's orbit by the |
to limit — to keep within a certain area, size, amount, number, limits. Synonyms: to restrict, to confine |
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gravity of Jupiter and Saturn. Halley said that we were possibly observing a single comet orbiting the sun. He predicted that it would return in 1758. The reappearance of this comet on Christmas night of that year, 16 years after Halley's death was the proof of Halley's hypothesis; the comet has since been known as Halley's comet. It seems probable that the bright comets reported every 74 to 79 years since 240 B.C. were earlier appearances. The comet will be back in the inner solar system in 2061, but only in May 2134 will we have a spectacular view from the Earth's surface, though we may not be limited to the Earth's surface by that time. | |
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