Lection 7. The conjunction in the contrasted languages

1. General characteristic

2. Using conjunction

1. General characteristic

Conjunctions may be denned as: forming a closed lexical category, or a lexical item belonging to this category, whose members serve to construct coordinate structures, such as "and", "or" and "but" in English'. In this grammar, however, we retain the traditional approach, including conjunctions, or 'subordinates', which introduce subordinate clauses. Con­junctions thus cover a rather diffuse area, from linking elements of simple sentences to linking the clauses of composite sentences.

In other words, they are used to convey the coordination of parts of the clause and of separate clauses, and to convey the subordination of one clause to another. They may be:

(i) simple, for example,

і (й) and a and, but

бо because, for що that

та and (а)ні neither/nor, and not

чи or (also question particle) як how, that

(ii) compound, for example,

щоб so that проте therefore, from (what) reason, but, besides

якщо if ніби as if

або or зате instead, moreover, however

(iii) composite, for example,

через те що since, because незважаючи на те що in spite of the fact that

для того щоб in order to/that подібно до того як like

тому що because

COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS EITHER

(і) correlate, for example,

і (й) and та and

також also, too як... так і... both . . ., and . . .

(а)ні... (а)ні... neither ..., nor… не тільки ... а й ... not only .. ., but also . . .

же and, but

(also emphatic, enclitic (after first accent-bearing element), many inter­pretations and in combination with various other particles)

(ii) contrast, for example,

a but але but

та but проте but

зате but однак but, still, however, or

(iii) separate, for example,

або or чи or

або ... або ... either . . ., or . . . чи ... чи ... either . . ., or . . .

SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS MAY BE

(i) causal, for example,

тому що because тим що because, since

через те що because, since бо for

оскільки (in)sofar as у зв'язку з тим що since, in connection

with. . .

(ii) temporal, for example,

як and в міру того як as, in proportion as

як тільки as soon as як лиш as soon as

щойно as soon as, hardly тільки но hardly, just, no sooner . . .

скоро when, if, as soon as коли when

відколи since доки ... не until

поки while, as long as поки ... не until

перед тим як before після того як after

з того часу як since

(iii) spatial, for example,

де where куди (to) where, whither

звідки from where, whence

(iv) conditional, for example,

як if якщо if

коли if коли б if only

якби if, if only раз if

(v) purposive (= aim), for example,

щoб(и) so that для того щоб in order that

з тим щоб so that затим щоб so that

аби in order that, so that

(vi) comparative, for example,

як as, since що as

(не)мoв as if, as it were немовби as if, as it were

наче(бто) as if, as it were ніби as if

неначе as if, as though буцім би/буцім то/буцім би то as if

(vii) consequential, for example,

так що so that

(viii) concessive, for example,

хоч/хоча although хай let

нехай let дарма що although

незважаючи на те що despite, in spite of the fact that

(ix) explanatory, for example,

тобто that is себто that is

а саме that is, in other words

to which we may add the general subordinator що 'that' and the relatives який and що.

We may also add the markers of indirect speech, namely що 'that', чи 'yes/ no' interrogative particle, and all the various question words, some of them already listed above and elsewhere, for example,

хто who що what

чий whose чому/навіщо/пощо why

коли when де where

куди where (to) звідки where from (and many other variants)

Subordinating conjunctions may also occur in pairs (like coordinating con­junctions), for them one in the main clause and the other in the subordinate clause, for example,

чим + comparative . . ., тим + comparative . . . the x-er . . ., the x-er . . .

дарма що/хоч ..., а(ле)... although .......

тільки ..., як ... hardly . . ., than . .

який ..., такий ... like . . ., like .

як ..., так ... since/as. . ., (thus)

коли ..., тоді... when . . ., (then). . .

де ..., там ... where . . ., (there)

відкіля ..., відтіля ... from where, (from there). . .

не тільки ..., але й/а й/а також/а навіть ... not only . .., but also/even . . .

(о)скільки ..., (о)стільки ... insofar as ...

якщо ..., то ... if. . ., (then). .

The pairs may be repetitions, for example,

і..., і... both . . ., and ... то ..., то... now . . ., now .. .

або ..., або ... either . . ., or . . . чи ..., чи ... either . . ., or . ..