Vocabulary:

accurately	точно
to set up	установити, заснувати
surrender	відмова, капітуляція
arbitrary	довільний, невмотивований, спірний
guesswork	здогадки, здогади, припущення
skilled worker	кваліфікований працівник
to eliminate	виключити, ліквідувати
approach	підхід
scope	межа, границя, край, масштаб, можливість
assumption	припущення
to combat	битися, боротися
frustration	розлад планів, безлад у планах; крах усіх надій, розчарування
prosperity	процвітання, розквіт
applicable	придатний, пристосований; підходящий
whim	примха, каприз
in this respect	у цьому відношенні, відносно чого, стосовно чого, щодо чого
to pool the wool over their eyes	туману напустити, замилювати очі
work-force (labour-force)	робочая сила
handling cost	витрати на обробку
clerical work	канцелярська робота
expertise	досвід; дослід, спроба
to pin smb down	піймати, спіймати, зловити; приперти до стінки
slave-driver	наглядач, доглядач; безжалісний начальник; експлуататор

Practical Tasks:

Exercise 1. Give the definition of the principles of scientific management after Taylor.

Exercise 2. Find out synonymous words and expressions to the following words of the text: to suggest, at the beginning, pace, point of view, right, work, applicable, to choose, to teach, trade union members, qualified worker, to use, approximate method, result, to fight, restrict, experience, wage, labour force, to cut off, exploiter.

Exercise 3. Answer the questions:

1. What would ‘scientific management’ according to Taylor acquire?

2. What steps does scientific approach require?

3. What was work organization in Taylor’s time?

4. What new methods did he propose?

5. What did scientific management required from workers?

6. What was one of the Taylor’s basic theses?

7. Did Taylor prove his theoretical investigation in empirical way?

8. What kind of an experiment did he make?

9. What were the results of the experiment?

Exercise 4. Discussion:

1. What was good in Taylor’s experiment?

2. Does it look primitive today?

3. In what way can it be applied to our modern reality?

4. Your propositions!

Text 10. Scientific Management after Taylor.

Three important followers of scientific management were Frank and Lilian Gilbreth together with Henry Gantt. All made significant contributions to the study of work.

The husband-and-wife team of Frank and Lilian Gilbreth, who were somewhat younger than the pioneering Taylor, were keenly interested in the idea of scientific management. In his now famous Testimony to the House of Representatives Committee in 1912, Taylor describes how he was first approached by Frank Gilbreth who asked if the principles of scientific management could be applied to bricklaying. Some three years later Gilbreth was able to inform Taylor that as a direct result of analysing, and subsequently redesigning, the working methods of typical bricklayers, he was able to reduce the number of movements in laying bricks from 18 per brick to 5 per brick. The study of task movements, or “motion study” as it was known, was a development of Taylor's ideas and represented the Gilbreths’ major contribution to basic management techniques.

A particular feature of the Gilbreths' work was its detailed content. 'Measurement' was their byword, and the Science of Management, as they put it, consisted of applying measurement to management, and of abiding by the results. They were convinced that it was possible to find the “one best way” of doing things, and there is no doubt that they went a long way towards the ideal. As employers, the Gilbreths practised what they preached. They laid down systematic rules and procedures for the efficient operation of work, and insisted that these be kept to. In return, the employees were paid well above competitors' rates, and, into the bargain were freed from unnecessary effort and fatigue. With this approach, the separation of the planning from the doing was complete. The employees had no discretion whatsoever once the scientific process had determined how the job should be done. Although these ideas were challenged at the time, they could not be ignored by the new industrial age and its obsession with ideas of efficiency. Whilst few people were prepared to undertake the sheet details of the Gilbreths methods, the basic techniques caught on, and today (as Method Study) they represent one of the key measures used by managements to organise and control working methods in a wide range of industries.

Two examples of the recording techniques used by the Gilbreths are “therbligs” and process charting. Therbligs (Gilbreth spelt backwards, in effect) are the basic elements of on-the-job motions and provide a standardised basis for recording movements. They include such items as: search, find, grasp, assemble and inspect. A few items cover periods when no motion may be in evidence such as: wait-unavoidable, rest and plan. The most usual list of therbligs contains 18 items, and may be accompanied by appropriate symbols and colours to aid recording.

Examples of Therbligs are shown below in Figure 3.

Symbol	Name	Colour
	Search	Black
	Find	Grey
	Select	Light Grey
	Grasp	Red
	Hold	Gold

Figure 3 – Therblig symbols

Flow process charts were devised by the Gilbreths to enable whole operations or processes to be analysed. In these charts five symbols were utilised to cover Operation, Transportation, Inspection, Delay and Storage.

Flow chart symbols used in the flow process charts are shown in Figure 4.

Inspection Storage Operation

Transportation Delay

Figure 4 – Flow chart symbols.

Henry Gantt. Gantt was a contemporary and colleague of Taylor's at the Bethlehem Steel Company. Whilst accepting many of Taylor's ideas on scientific management, Gantt felt that the individual worker was not given enough consideration. Although Taylor himself was not a slave-driver in any way, his methods were used by less scrupulous employers to squeeze as much production as possible out of their workforce. This was particularly true in respect of piece-rate systems. Gantt introduced a payment system where performance below what is called for on the individual's instruction card still qualified the person for the day-rate, but performance of all the work allocated on the card qualified the individual for a handsome bonus. Gantt discovered that as soon as any one worker found that he could achieve the task, the rest quickly followed. Better use was made of the foremen, because they were sought after by individuals who needed further instruction or help with faulty machines. As a result, supervision improved, breakdowns were minimised and delays avoided by all concerned. Eventually individual workers learned to cope on their own with routine problems. Gantt's bonus system also allowed for the men to challenge the time allocated for a particular task. This was permitted because Gantt, unlike the Gilbreths, did not believe that there was a “one best way”, but only a way “which seems to be best at the moment”. Gantt's approach to scientific management left some discretion and initiative to the workers, unlike those of his colleague, Taylor, and of his fellow theorists, the Gilbreths.

Although it was his ideas on the rewards for labour that made Gantt a notable figure in his day, he is best remembered nowadays for his charts. The Gantt chart was originally set up to indicate graphically the extent to which tasks had been achieved. It was divided horizontally into hours, day or weeks with the task marked out in a straight line across the appropriate numbers of hours or days etc. The amount of the task achieved was shown by another straight line parallel to the original. It was easy from such a chart to assess actual from planned performance. There are many variations of the Gantt chart in use today, and an example is given below:

Period	Week l	Week 2	Week 3	Week 4
Planned Output	1000 units	1000 units	1000 units	1000 units
Actual Output	850 units	900 units	1000 units	1100 units
Weekly Actual	……….	……….	……….	……….
Cumulative	……….	……….	……….	……….

Figure 5 - Gantt chart.