Managing Conflict

Conflict is an inevitable by-product of interpersonal dealings. This is particularly true of work groups because they generally are expediently assembled collections of individuals with differing backgrounds, perceptions, attitudes and values. Conflict, as defined by an expert in the field, “refers to all kinds of opposition or antagonistic interaction. It is based on scarcity of power, resources or social position, and differing value structures”. But one should be careful not to assume that all conflict is bad. Conflict has two faces, one functional (or constructive) and the other dysfunctional (or destructive). “Constructive conflict is both valuable and necessary. Without conflict, there would be few new challenges; there would be no stimulation to think through ideas; organizations would be only apathetic and stagnant”.

Conflict triggers. A conflict trigger is a circumstance that increases the chances of intergroup or interpersonal conflict. It can stimulate either functional or dysfunctional conflict. As long as a conflict trigger appears to stimulate constructive conflict, it can be allowed to continue. But as soon as the symptoms of destructive conflict become apparent, steps should be taken to remove or correct the offending conflict trigger. Major conflict triggers include: ambiguous overlapping jurisdictions; competition for scarce resources; communication breakdowns; time pressure; unreasonable standards, rules. Policies, or procedures; personality clashes; status differentials; unrealized expectations.

Resolving conflict. Even the best managers sometimes find themselves in the middle of dysfunctional conflict, whether it is due to inattention or to circumstances beyond their control. In these situations, one or more of the following conflict resolution techniques may be appropriate.

Problem solving. When conflicting parties take the time to identify and correct the source of their conflict, they are engaging in problem solving. This approach is based on the assumption that causes must be rooted out and attacked if anything is really to change. The major shortcoming of the problem-solving approach is that it takes time, but the investment of extra time can pay off handsomely when the problem is corrected instead of ignored.

Superordinate goals. “Superordinate goals are highly valued, unattainable by any one group (or individual) alone, and commonly sought”. When a manager relies on superordinate goals to resolve dysfunctional conflict, he or she brings the conflicting parties together and, in effect says, “Look, we’re all in this together. Let’s forget our differences so we can get the job done”. Although this technique often works in the short run, the underlying problem totally crops up later to cause friction once again.

Compromise. This technique generally appeals to those living in a democracy. Proponents of this approach claim that everybody wins because it is based on negotiation, or give, or take. But everyone loses something in a compromise. Something must be given up if anything is to be gained. Like problem solving, compromise takes time that management may or may not be able to afford. But, unlike problem solving, the problem is worked around rather than solved.

Forcing. Sometimes, especially when time is important, management must simply step into a conflict and order the conflicting parties to handle the situation in a certain manner. Reliance on formal authority and power of superior position are at the heart of forcing. Forcing does not resolve the personal conflict and, in fact, may serve to compound it by hurting feelings and/or fostering resentment and mistrust.

Smoothing. A manager who relies on smoothing, says to the conflicting parties something like “Settle down. Don’t rock the boat. Things will work out themselves”. This approach may tone down conflict in the short run, but it doesn’t solve the underlying problem. As with the each other conflict resolution techniques, smoothing has its place. It can be useful when management is attempting to hold things together until a critical project is completed or when there is no time for problem solving or compromise and forcing is deemed inappropriate.

Text 3

Selecting Employees

Selection is the process of collecting systematic information about applicants and using that information to decide which applicant to hire. The major purpose of various devices of selection - application form, interviews, testing, and reference checking - is to gather information about the applicants’ job related skills. A very important principle of the questions should reflect the activities of the job to be filled.

The application. Traditional application forms ask information about educational and work history, avocational interests, and honors. However, such forms have limitations. In the majority of cases, they have limited space, so the applicant can supply only basic information such as the manes of schools attended, major, dated of attendance, and previous job titles and dates of employment. A second limitation is that a large percentage of respondents falsify the information that they report. Such falsification is easy because often all that is requested is brief information such as job title and major.

One device that has been used successfully is a training and experience form, which presents a small number, for example five, of the important tasks of the job. The form asks applicants to indicate whether they have ever performed or been trained in each of the activities. If they answer yes, they are then asked to describe briefly how to perform the activity.

The interview. The interview is, perhaps, the most often used selection device. The purpose of the interview is to allow at least one member of the organization to interact with each applicant and assess that applicant’s job-related KSAs (key selection areas). Two aspects of the interview format are especially important. First, the interview should be structured, meaning that the interviewer asks the same set of job-related questions of each candidate. This ensures that the interviewer gathers full information from each applicant, and it makes comparisons among applicants easier because they all are evaluated on the same characteristics. The second aspect of the format is the nature of the questions. Questions about job-related behaviors have proven to be quite useful. The idea behind them is that gathering information about behaviors that are performed on the job is useful in making selection decision. The interviewer must evaluate the accuracy and completeness of the response.

Tests. Many organizations use tests during the selection process to identify those applicants who have the specific KSAs needed for the available position. Human resource managers can use many kinds of tests. The most common are the following:

Ability tests are paper-and-pencil quizzes, usually multiple choice, that measure an applicant’s knowledge of specific work content or cognitive ability.

Performance or work-sample tests verify an applicant’s ability to perform actual job behaviors identified from a job analysis. Perhaps the oldest example is a typing test.

Assessment center tests are programs that typically simulate managerial tasks. One of the most often used simulations is the In-Basket, which simulates 20 to 30 office memos, complete with an organizational chart and relevant company policy statement.

Integrity tests measure an applicant’s attitudes and opinions about dysfunctional behaviors such as theft, sabotage, physical abuse, and substance abuse. Companies usually use paper-and-pencil, multiple choice tests that ask about the applicant’s thoughts and reactions to a number of illegal or unethical situations.

Personality inventories measure the thoughts, feeling and behavior that define an individual and determine that person’s pattern of interaction with the environment. Two general types of personality tests have been used in selection. One is a multiple-choice questionnaire. The second type of personality tests is the projective test, which asks an applicant to write a story about ambiguous pictures or to finish partially completed sentences.

Physical examinations test individuals for placement in manually and physically demanding jobs.

Reference checks. A company considering hiring a particular applicant often contacts previous employers or others who know him or her well to verify the information previously obtained. Reference checks can be handled in three ways. The first, and most often used, is through telephone conversations, in which previous supervisors of the applicant are contacted. Other ways include in-person visits and mail inquiries. The organization may also obtain reference information from investigative agencies, credit bureaus, and public documents.