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Clauses

Purpose clauses

You use a purpose clause when you want to state the purpose of the action in the independent clause. The most common type of purpose clause is a to-infinitive clause.

  • Sarah went to the computer lab to print out her research report.

In formal writing, in order to and so as to are often used.

  • The company conducted a detailed survey in order to gauge its clients’ views.

In formal writing, you can also introduce a purpose clause with so that or in order that. These finite purpose clauses usually contain a modal.

  • Dr Chan adjusted the overhead projector so that the students would be able to see the chart more clearly.

  • The lecturer finished his lecture five minutes early so that the students could come and ask him questions.

The difference between so and so that is that so that implies that the cause was deliberately done by someone in order to get a specific result.

There are a number of other ways of expressing purpose in English. These are some of the most common ones: with a view to, with the intention of, with the object/aim of, for the purpose of

If you use these phrases, make sure that the verb is in the _ing form.

  • The university introduced two new English courses with a view to enhancing students’ proficiency in the language.

Reason clauses

In your written and spoken assignments you will often need to answer the question ‘Why?’. When you want to explain why something happens, you can use a reason clause introduced by the conjunctions because, as or since.

  • As she wanted to ractice her spoken English, Carrie regularly took part in the ELC’s Big Mouth Corner.

  • Mark joined the English Drama Club because he wanted to improve his intonation.

Don’t use so in sentences beginning with since, as or because. Here is a common mistake:

  • Since he was interested in movies, so David joined the PolyU International Film Society.

You can also use the prepositional phrases because of and on account of to express reason.

  • We were unable to carry out the experiment on account of a malfunction in the computer.

  • We were unable to carry out the experiment because the computer malfunctioned.

As you will see in the Vocabulary section below, there are many other ways of indicating reason and cause in English.

Result clauses

When you want to indicate the result of an action or situation, you can use a result clause. Result clauses are introduced by conjunctions such as so, so... that, or suchthat.

There are many other ways of talking about the result of an action or situation. In some situations you may prefer to use and as a result or with the result that.

  • The lecture was boring and irrelevant, and as a result some of the students began to fall asleep.

  • The lecture was boring and irrelevant, with the result that some of the students began to fall asleep.

As a result can also be used at the beginning of a new sentence.

  • The lecture was boring and irrelevant. As a result, some of the students began to fall asleep.

The following words and phrases are used in the same way.

Therefore, Thus, In consequence, Consequently, For this/that reason

Causal relations can be expressed by ing-clauses of result.

  • The government increased the duty on wine. As a result, there was a fall in demand.

  • The government increased the duty on wine, resulting in a fall in demand.

  • When we want to make two points, and emphasise that one of them contrasts with the other, there are a number of different words and expressions that we can use.

  • Probably the most common and simplest word to use is the conjunction but. It comes between the two clauses that you wish to contrast:

The team was beaten, but Paul scored three goals.

Although is also a conjunction, and can come either at the beginning of a sentence, or between the two clauses that you wish to contrast:

Although it was raining, they went on a picnic.

They went on a picnic although it was raining.

Though can be used in exactly the same way, and is more common in informal speech:

Though it was raining, they went on a picnic.

They went on a picnic though it was raining.

If we use even though in this way, the word even stresses that what follows is surprising:

Even though he’s almost ninety, he’s entered the marathon.

Though can also be used as an adverb, to mean however (see below).

Frogs, though, are amphibians and not reptiles.

Strange place, isn’t it?” “Yes. Very interesting, though.”

Even so also means however (see below), and comes at the beginning of the sentence:

They come from a very rich family. Even so, they’re really mean with their money.

However, nevertheless, mind you, still, yet, and in spite of this can all be used as adverbs to show that something you are saying contrasts with something else.

However and nevertheless emphasise the fact that the second thing that you are saying contrasts with the first. Neverthelessis more formal.

The children had a lovely day. However, they arrived home very sunburnt.

The government vowed to reduce inflation. Nevertheless, one year later, the rate has increased by 3 percent.

We use mind you and still to introduce whatever contrasts as an afterthought:

He’s a horrible man. Mind you, many people like him.

The weather was awful all week. Still, we had a nice rest.

Yet, still and in spite of this all emphasise that something is surprising, considering what has already been said:

He’s been an invalid since he was a child and yet has had a brilliant career.

United were four goals down at halftime, and were still able to win the game.

He claims that he’s a vegetarian. In spite of this, he does enjoy a bit of ham every now and again.

In spite of can also be used as a preposition. In spite of + noun is very similar to although + clause (see above):

He looks very fit in spite of his age (=although he’s very old)

He went to the gym in spite of his broken leg (=although he had a broken leg)

In spite of can be followed by an –ing form.

In spite of not being able to swim, she survived for almost an hour in the sea.

We can also use despite in the same way as in spite of in more formal English:

He was considered for the position despite his lack of experience.

APPENDIX 6