Referring back in a specific way

9.7 'This' and 'that', and the plural forms 'these' and 'those', are used to refer back clearly to a thing or fact that has just been mentioned.

They can be used both as pronouns and as determiners.

More and more money is being pumped into the educational system, and it is reasonable to assume this will continue.

In 1973 he went on a caravan holiday. At the beginning of this holiday he began to experience pain in his chest.

Note that 'this' and 'that' are not very often used as pronouns to refer to people. When they are used like this, they are only used in front of the verb 'be'.

'It was here that one young prisoner was sold for a bag of corn,' said the old woman. 'That was me'.

9.8 When you use 'this' or 'these', you are linking yourself with the thing you are referring to.

The concert began with his Second Piano Sonata. This is a work that has usually been considered as fundamentally negative.

After you've set your goals, remember them by using a list. Anything that is worth doing should go on this list.

Only small pines are left. Many of these have twisted and stunted shapes.

There were great quantities of cattle at Camusfearna that year. The majority of these beasts were black.

In contrast, when you use 'that' or 'those', you are distancing yourself slightly from the thing you are referring to.

There's a lot of material there. You can use some of that.

There's one boss and that boss is in France.

There were only strangers around to observe him, and not many of those.

The rooms are inhabited by boys from twelve to sixteen years of age. The majority of those boys have reached the stage of caring for comfort and decorations.

9.9 Although 'this' and 'that' are singular pronouns, you can use them to refer back to a number of things or facts that have just been mentioned, instead of using a plural pronoun.

Later, computer systems were brought into play to draw up attack strategies: later yet, they found themselves riding along in aircraft, submarines, and tanks. At this had its beneficial aspects.

He had played rugby at school, had been in the army and had briefly been a professional footballer. That was thought to be to his favour when the job came up later.

demonstratives referring to sentences 9.10 Demonstratives can also be pronouns of determiners which refer back to an entire sentence or a number of sentences.

'You're the new doctor, aren't you?'—'That's right.'

'Were you worried about the disrespect for the law exhibited by your two heroes?'—'That's a hard question to answer.'

'I'll think about it, Mother.' That statement was the end of most of their discussions.

I accept neither of these arguments.

Note that when 'these' and 'those' are pronouns referring back to an entire statement they are only used in front of the verb 'be'.

It was hard for the to believe these were his real reasons for wanting to get rid of me.

I put my arms around her. 'Thanks, Ollie.' Those were here last words.

'previous' 9.11 You can also use the adjective 'previous' attributively to refer back to a section of text.

As explained in the previous chapter, the bottle needs only to be washed in a cold water.

I think we can now answer the question posed at the end of the previous chapter.

'above' 9.12 In written English you can also refer to what you have just mentioned by using 'above' as a modifier.

I have not been able to validate the above statement.

You can also use 'the above' without a noun group after it.

Keep supplies of rice and spaghetti. Also, to go with the above, Parmesan cheese and tins of tomatoes.

9.13 When you have just referred separately to two things or groups of things, you can refer to the first one as 'the former' and the second one as 'the latter'. These expressions are used mainly in formal English.

It used to be said that the oil exporting countries depended on the oil importing counties just as much as the latter depended on the former.

I could do one of two things—obey him or get my own protection. I chose the latter.

'Former' and 'latter' can also be attributive adjectives.

The Gallery must be given a full chapter or just a brief paragraph, and space forbids the former alternative.

Guy had studied classics and philosophy at Oxford and always felt a sort of lingering interest in the latter subject.

9.14 When you want to refer generally to a whole class of things like the one that has been mentioned, you can say 'things of this kind' or 'things of that kind'. Alternatively you can say 'this kind of thing' or 'that kind of thing'.

We'll need a special new terminal to incorporate customs facilities, immigration facilities, and things of that kind.

Most of us would attach a great deal of importance to considerations of this kind.

I don't see many advantages in that kind of education.

An arts theatres have that type of problem.

If you are referring to things of two or more kinds, you use 'these' and 'those' in front of 'kinds', 'sorts', or 'types', followed by 'of' and a noun.

Both these countries want to reduce the production of these kinds of weapons.

There are specific regulations governing these types of machines.

Outsiders aren't supposed to make those kinds of jokes.

You can also use 'such' to refer back to things of a type that has just been mentioned. This is explained in paragraphs 9.28 to 9.32.

9.15 The adverb 'then' is used to refer back to the time that has just been mentioned or discussed.

In ancient times poetry was a real force in the world. Of course the world was different then.

9.16 The adverb 'there' is used to refer back to the place that has just been mentioned.

I decided to try Newmarket. I soon found a job there.

I hurried back into the kitchen. There was nothing there.

9.17 After describing a way of doing something way in which something happens, you can refer back to it using the adverb 'thus'. 'Thus' is a formal word.

Eventually with a groan of good nature he gave in. There was, as a matter of fact, even something pleasing to him in thus giving in.

It not only pleased him to work with them, but the few pence thus earned gave him an enormous sense of importance.

Note that 'in this way' or 'in that way' are commonly used instead.

More and more people will turn to cheques and credit cards for the majority of their purchases. Many people in the Western world already do the bulk of their purchasing in this way.