Events before a particular time in the past: the past perfect

5.37 If you want to talk about a past event or situation that occurred before a particular time in the past you use the past perfect.

One day he noticed that a culture plate had become contaminated by a mould.

By dusk tear gas had spread through the south campus.

She had lost her job as a real estate agent and was working as a waitress.

I detested any form of games and had always managed to avoid children's parties.

5.38 If you want to emphasize the recentness and the duration of a continuous activity which took place before a particular time in the past, you use the past perfect continuous.

Until now the rumours that had been circulating were exaggerated versions of the truth.

The doctor had been working alone.

He arrived back in Munich from Rome where he had been meeting other OAS leaders.

They had been hitting our trucks regularly.

5.39 If you want to say that something was expected, wished for, or intended before a particular time in the past, you use the past perfect or the past perfect continuous to show that it has not yet happened.

She had naturally assumed that once there was a theatre everybody would want to go.

It was the remains of a ten-rupee note which she had hoped would last till the end of the week.

It was not as nice on the terrace as Clarissa had expected.

I had been expecting some miraculous obvious change.

Emphasizing time in the past: using adjuncts

5.40 When you are using past tenses, you normally use an adjunct of time at some point to indicate that you are talking about the past.

At one time the arts of reading and writing were classed among the great mysteries of life for the majority of people.

I've made some poor decisions lately, but I'm feeling much better now.

It was very splendid once, but it's only a ruin now.

It's Mark who lost his wife. A year last January.

It was terribly hot yesterday.

5.41 Adjuncts of time can refer either to a specific time, or to a more general indefinite period of time.

The lists below give the most common adjuncts of indefinite time which are used mainly with past tenses. With the exception of 'since' and 'ever since' which come at the end of a clause, you put them after the auxiliary or modal in a verb group which has more than one word. If you use them with the simple past, you put them in front of the verb.

The words in the following list can be used with all past tenses:

again already earlier

ever since finally first

in the past just last

previously recently since

The words in the following list can be used with all past tenses except the present perfect:

afterwards at one time eventually

formerly immediately lately

next once originally

subsequently

Note that 'once' here means 'at some time in the past'. For its uses as an adverb of frequency, see paragraph 5.115.

For the uses of 'since' as a preposition in adjuncts of time, see paragraph 5,137.

Some adjuncts used with past tenses are more specific. If you want to be more exact about the time reference, you use adjuncts which include the word 'yesterday', and those involving time expressions such as 'ago', 'other', and 'last'. Note that 'ago' is placed after the noun group.

I saw him yesterday evening.

We bought the house from her the day before yesterday.

Three weeks ago I was staying in San Francisco.

I saw my goddaughter the other day.

It all happened a long time ago.

WARNING 5.42 You say 'last night', not 'yesterday night'.

used for emphasis 5.43 There are some cases where adjuncts have to be used to specify the time reference. In other cases, you may simply want to make the action clear, or emphatic. These uses are described below.

used with the simple past 5.44 When you use the simple past to describe habitual of regular activities, you can use an adjunct of frequency to indicate the regularity or repetition of the activity.

He often agreed to work quite cheaply.

Sometimes he read so much that he became confused.

Etta phoned Guppy every day.

The use of the simple past to describe habitual actions is explained in paragraph 5.30.

used with the past continuous 5.45 If you are using the past continuous to talk about repeated actions, you can add an adjunct of frequency such as 'always' or 'forever' after the auxiliary to emphasize the frequency of the action or to express your annoyance about it.

In the immense shed where we worked, something was always going wrong.

Ellen was always answering the door, talking to the coalman.

Her eyes squeezed up and ran with tears, so that she was forever wiping them.

The use of the past continuous to describe repeated actions is explained in paragraph 5.31.

5.46 When you use the present perfect to mention something that relevant to the present, you can add an adjunct of frequency to indicate that the action was repeated.

I've often wondered why we didn't move years ago.

Britain and other Western nations have frequently told South Africa that they want Mandela released.

The use of the present perfect to talk about situations which are still relevant is explained m paragraph 5.33,

5.47 Note that if you are talking about a quality, attitude, or possession that still exists or is still relevant, you need to use the present perfect with an adjunct of duration.

We've had it for fifteen years.

He's always liked you, you know.

l have known him for years.

My people have been at war since 1917.

5.48 If you use the present perfect and the present perfect continuous to mention a continuing activity that began in the past, you can add an adjunct of duration to indicate how long it has been going on.

For many years, the TUC has been advocating child care facilities at work.

They have been meeting together weekly now for two years.

He has looked after me well since his mother died.

The use of the present perfect and the present perfect continuous to talk about activities that began in the past is explained in paragraph 5.35.

5.49 When you use the past perfect to describe a repeated event that took place before a particular time in the past, you use an adjunct of frequency to indicate how often it was repeated.

Posy had always sought her out even then.

The house keeper mentioned that the dog had attacked its mistress more than once.

The use of the past perfect to describe events that occurred before a particular time in the past are explained in paragraph 5.37.

5.50 If you are using the past perfect to talk about a situation which did not change in the past, you use an adjunct of duration to emphasize the length of time during which it existed.

They weren't really our aunt and uncle, but we had always known them.

All through those many years he had never ever lost track of my father.

His parents had been married for twelve years when he was born.

5.51 If you are using the past perfect continuous to mention a recent, continuous activity, you can specify when it began by using an adjunct.

The Home Office had until now been insisting on giving the officers only ten days to reach a settlement.

Since then, the mother had been living with her daughter.

Adjuncts of frequency or duration can also be added for emphasis.

The drive increased the fatigue she had been feeling for hours.

The rain had been pouring all night.

The use of the past perfect continuous to talk about a recent, continuous activity is explained in paragraph 5.38.