8 Combining messages 279

Adverbial clauses 280

Time clauses 281

Conditional clauses 284

Purpose clauses 287

Reason clauses 288

Result clauses 288

Concessive clauses 290

Place clauses 291

Clauses of manner 291

Relative clauses 292

Using relative pronouns in defining clauses 293

Using relative pronouns in non-defining clauses 294

Using relative pronouns with prepositions 294

Using 'whose' 295

Using other relative pronouns 295

Additional points about non-defining relative clauses 296

Nominal relative clauses 296

Non-finite clauses 297

Using non-defining clauses 297

Using defining clauses 298

Other structures used like non-finite clauses 299

Coordination 299

Linking clauses 299

Linking verbs 301

Linking noun groups 302

Linking adjectives and adverbs 303

Linking other word groups 304

Emphasizing coordinating conjunctions 304

Linking more than two clauses or word groups 305

Contents of Chapter 9 306

9 Making texts 306

Referring back 306

Referring back in a specific way 307

Referring back in a general way 308

Substituting for something already mentioned: using 'so' and 'not' 310

Comparing with something already mentioned 311

Referring forward 312

Leaving out words: ellipsis 313

Ellipsis in conversation 315

Contents of Chapter 10 316

10 The structure of information 317

Introduction 317

Focusing on the thing affected: the passive voice 318

Selecting focus: cleft sentences 321

Taking the focus off the subject: using impersonal 'it' 322

Describing a place or situation 323

Talking about the weather and the time 323

Commenting on an action, activity, or experience 324

Commenting on a fact that you are about to mention 325

Introducing something new: 'there' as subject 326

Focusing on clauses or clause elements using adjuncts 327

Commenting on your statement: sentence adjuncts 327

Indicating your attitude to what you are saying 327

Stating your field of reference 329

Showing connections: linking adjuncts 330

Indicating a change in a conversation 331

Emphasizing 332

Indicating the most relevant thing: focusing adverbs 333

Other information structures 334

Putting something first: fronting 334

Introducing your statement: prefacing structures 335

Doing by saying: performative verbs 335

Exclamations 336

Making a statement into a question: question tags 337

Addressing people: vocatives 338

Contents of the Reference Section 339

Reference Section 339

Pronunciation guide 339

Forming plurals of count nouns 340

Forming comparative and superlative adjectives 341

The spelling and pronunciation of possessives 343

Numbers 344

Cardinal numbers 344

Ordinal numbers 345

Fractions and percentages 346

Verb forms and the formation of verb groups 346

Finite verb groups and the formation of tenses 352

Non-finite verb groups: infinitives and participles 356

Forming adverbs 357

Forming comparative and superlative adverbs 358

Index 359

8 Combining messages

8.1 Sometimes we want to make a statement which is too complex or detailed to be expressed in a single clause. We mate statements of this kind by putting two or more clauses together in one sentence.

There are two ways in which we do this. One way is to use one clause as a main clause and to add other clauses which express subordinate meanings.

I came because I want you to help me.

I didn't like the man who did the gardening for them.

You have no right to keep people off your land unless they are doing damage.

When he had gone, Valentina sighed.

The other way is simply to link clauses together.

I'm an old man and I'm sick.

My son has a car but he doesn't take the for a drive.

Questions and orders can also consist of more than one clause.

What will I do if he doesn't come?

If she is ambitious, don't try to hold her back.

Clauses are explained in Chapters a and 4.

8.2 When you put two clauses into one sentence, you use a conjunction to link them and to indicate the relationship between them.

When he stopped, no one said anything.

They were going by car because it was more comfortable.

The telephone rang and Judy picked it up.

Manfred behaved perfectly, but Gertrude had little idea of what he was thinking.

8.3 There are two kinds of conjunction. They indicate the different kinds of relationship between clauses in a sentence.

8.4 When you are adding a clause in order to develop some aspect of what you are saying, you use a subordinating conjunction.

The cat jumped onto my father's lap while he was reading his letters.

The wound was healing although he would never be able to speak again.

When the jar was full, he turned the water off.

A clause which begins with a subordinating conjunction is called a subordinate clause.

When an atom is split, it releases neutrons.

If he had a gun, he would have killed the man.

The house was called Elm View, although there were no elms anywhere in sight.

Subordinate clauses can also be added to questions and imperative clauses.

How long is it since you've actually taught?

Know what fibre you are dyeing before you start.

Sentences containing a main clause and one or more subordinate clauses are often called complex sentences.

There are three main kinds of subordinate clause:

Adverbial clauses are dealt with in paragraphs 8.6 to 8.82.

Relative clauses are dealt with in paragraphs 8.83 to 8.116.

Reported clauses are dealt with in Chapter 7.

coordinating conjunctions 8.5 lf you are simply linking clauses, you use a coordinating conjunction.

Her son lives at home and has a steady job.

He's a shy man, but he's not scared of anything or anyone.

Coordinating conjunctions can also be put between questions and between imperative clauses.

Do people drive their own cars or are they all called for by the bus?

Visit your local dealer or phone for a brochure.

Clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction are called coordinate clauses.

She turned and left the room.

Sentences which contain coordinate clauses are sometimes called compound sentences.

A full explanation of coordinate clauses is given in paragraphs 8.137 to 8.151. Other uses of coordinating conjunctions are explained in paragraphs 8.152 to 8.189.