|
|
|
Contents |
xi |
|
6.2.5 |
Dry Ice (Frozen Carbon Dioxide) (-78'C) |
303 |
|
|
6.2.6 |
Liquid Nitrogen (-195.8°C) |
303 |
|
|
6.2.7 |
Slush Baths (+13° to -160°C) |
304 |
|
|
6.2.8 |
Safety with Slush Baths |
306 |
|
|
6.2.9 |
Containment of Cold Materials |
309 |
|
|
6.2.10 |
Liquid (Cryogenic) Gas Tanks |
313 |
|
References |
|
|
318 |
|
7 Vacuum Systems |
|
321 |
||
7.1 |
How to Destroy a Vacuum System |
321 |
||
7.2 |
An Overview of Vacuum Science and Technology |
322 |
||
|
7.2.1 |
Preface |
|
322 |
|
7.2.2 |
How to Use a Vacuum System |
325 |
|
|
7.2.3 |
The History of Vacuum Equipment |
325 |
|
|
7.2.4 |
Pressure, Vacuum, and Force |
328 |
|
|
7.2.5 Gases, Vapors, and the Gas Laws |
329 |
||
|
7.2.6 |
Vapor Pressure |
332 |
|
|
7.2.7 |
How to Make (and Maintain) a Vacuum |
333 |
|
|
7.2.8 |
Gas Flow |
|
334 |
|
7.2.9 |
Throughput and Pumping Speed |
338 |
|
7.3 |
Pumps |
|
|
340 |
|
7.3.1 |
The Purpose of Pumps |
340 |
|
|
7.3.2 |
The Aspirator |
341 |
|
|
7.3.3 |
Types and Features of Mechanical Pumps |
343 |
|
|
7.3.4 |
Connection, Use, Maintenance, and Safety |
349 |
|
|
7.3.5 |
Condensable Vapors |
354 |
|
|
7.3.6 |
Traps for Pumps |
356 |
|
|
7.3.7 |
Mechanical Pump Oils |
358 |
|
|
7.3.8 |
The Various Mechanical Pump Oils |
360 |
|
|
7.3.9 |
Storing Mechanical Pumps |
362 |
|
|
7.3.10 |
The Limitations of Mechanical Pumps and the Demands |
|
|
|
|
of High-Vacuum Pumps |
363 |
|
|
7.3.11 |
Ultrahigh-Vacuum Levels Without Ultrahigh-Vacuum Pumps |
364 |
|
|
7.3.12 |
Diffusion |
Pumps |
365 |
|
7.3.13 |
Attaching a Diffusion Pump to a Vacuum System |
370 |
|
|
7.3.14 |
How to Use a Diffusion Pump |
372 |
|
|
7 3.15 |
Diffusion |
Pump Limitations |
377 |
|
7.3.16 |
Diffusion |
Pump Oils |
378 |
|
7.3.17 |
Diffusion |
Pump Maintenance |
380 |
|
7.3.18 |
Toepler Pumps |
384 |
|
7.4 |
Traps |
|
|
386 |
|
7.4.1 |
The Purpose and Functions of Traps |
386 |
|
|
7.4.2 |
Types of Traps |
388 |
|
|
7.4.3 Proper Use of Cold Traps |
391 |
||
|
7.4.4 |
Maintenance of Cold Traps |
396 |
|
|
7.4.5 |
Separation Traps |
399 |
|
|
7.4.6 |
Liquid Traps |
401 |
|
xii |
Contents |
|
|
7.5 |
Vacuum Gauges |
402 |
|
|
7.5.1 |
The Purposes (and Limitations) of Vacuum Gauges |
402 |
|
7.5.2 |
The Mechanical Gauge Family |
404 |
|
7.5.3 |
Cleaning a Mechanical Gauge |
405 |
|
7.5.4 |
The Liquid Gauge Family |
406 |
|
7.5.5 |
The Manometer |
407 |
|
7.5.6 |
The McLeod Gauge |
409 |
|
7.5.7 |
How to Read a McLeod Gauge |
411 |
|
7.5.8 |
Bringing a McLeod Gauge to Vacuum Conditions |
413 |
|
7.5.9 |
Returning a McLeod Gauge to Atmospheric Conditions |
414 |
|
7.5.10 |
The Tipping McLeod Gauge |
414 |
|
7.5.11 |
Condensable Vapors and the McLeod Gauge |
416 |
|
7.5.12 |
Mercury Contamination from McLeod Gauges |
416 |
|
7.5.13 |
Cleaning a McLeod Gauge |
417 |
|
7.5.14 |
Thermocouple and Pirani Gauges |
419 |
|
7.5.15 |
The Pirani Gauge |
420 |
|
7.5.16 |
Cleaning Pirani Gauges |
421 |
|
7.5.17 |
The Thermocouple Gauge |
422 |
|
7.5.18 |
Cleaning Thermocouple Gauges |
423 |
|
7.5.19 |
The Ionization Gauge Family |
423 |
|
7.5.20 |
The Hot-Cathode Ion Gauge |
424 |
|
7.5.21 |
Cleaning Hot-Cathode Ion Gauges |
428 |
|
7.5.22 |
The Cold-Cathode Ion Gauge |
429 |
|
7.5.23 |
Cleaning Cold-Cathode Ion Gauges |
430 |
|
7.5.24 |
The Momentum Transfer Gauge (MTG) |
430 |
7.6 |
Leak Detection and Location |
431 |
|
|
7.6.1 |
All About Leaks |
431 |
|
7.6.2 |
Is Poor Vacuum a Leak or a Poor Vacuum? |
433 |
|
7.6.3 |
False Leaks |
433 |
|
7.6.4 |
Real Leaks |
435 |
|
7.6.5 |
Isolation to Find Leaks |
442 |
|
7.6.6 |
Probe Gases and Liquids |
444 |
|
7.6.7 |
The Tesla Coil |
446 |
|
7.6.8 |
Soap Bubbles |
451 |
|
7.6.9 |
Pirani or Thermocouple Gauges |
452 |
|
7.6.10 |
Helium Leak Detection |
454 |
|
7.6.11 |
Helium Leak Detection Techniques |
457 |
|
7.6.12 |
General Tips and Tricks of Helium Leak Detection |
459 |
|
7.6.13 |
Repairing Leaks |
466 |
7.7 |
More Vacuum System Information |
467 |
|
|
7.7.1 |
The Designs of Things |
467 |
References |
|
472 |
|
8 The Gas-Oxygen Torch |
477 |
||
8.1 |
The Dynamics of the Gas-Oxygen Torch |
'477 |
|
|
8.1.1 |
Types of Gas-Oxygen Torches |
477 |
|
|
Contents |
xiii |
8.1.2 |
How to Light a Gas-Oxygen Torch |
480 |
|
8.1.3 |
How to Prevent a Premix Torch from Popping |
481 |
|
8.2 Using the Gas-Oxygen Torch |
482 |
||
8.2.1 Uses for the Gas-Oxygen Torch in the Lab |
482 |
||
8.2.2 |
How to Tip-Off a Sample |
483 |
|
8.2.3 |
How to Fire-Polish the End of a Glass Tube |
487 |
|
8.2.4 |
Brazing and Silver Soldering |
488 |
|
APPENDIX |
|
|
|
Appendix A Preparing Drawings for a Technician |
489 |
||
|
A. 1 |
The Problems with Requests to Glass Shops |
489 |
|
A.2 Suggestions for Glassware Requests |
490 |
|
Appendix B |
Polymer Resistance |
493 |
|
|
B.I |
Introduction |
493 |
|
B.2 |
Polyolefins |
493 |
|
B.3 |
Engineering Resins |
495 |
|
B.4 |
Fluorocarbons |
496 |
|
B.5 |
Chemical Resistance Chart |
497 |
|
|
||
Appendix C |
Manufacturers |
504 |
|
|
|||
Appendix D |
Recommended Reading |
511 |
|
|
|||
Index |
|
|
517 |
|
|
|
|
