- •Contents
- •Foreword
- •Preface
- •1 Materials in the Lab
- •2 Measurement
- •3 Joints, Stopcocks, and Glass Tubing
- •4 Cleaning Glassware
- •5 Compressed Gases
- •6 High and Low Temperature
- •7 Vacuum Systems
- •8 The Gas-Oxygen Torch
- •APPENDIX
- •Appendix A Preparing Drawings for a Technician
- •Index
- •Foreword
- •Preface
- •For the Second Edition
- •Please note:
- •1 Materials in the Lab
- •1.1 Glass
- •1.1.1 Introduction
- •1.1.2 Structural Properties of Glass
- •1.1.3 Phase Separation
- •1.1.4 Devitrification
- •1.1.5 Different Types of Glass Used in the Lab
- •1.1.6 Grading Glass and Graded Seals
- •1.1.7 Separating Glass by Type
- •1.1.9 Stress in Glass
- •1.1.11 Tempered Glass
- •1.1.13 Limiting Broken Glass in the Lab
- •1.1.14 Storing Glass
- •1.1.15 Marking Glass
- •1.1.16 Consumer's Guide to Purchasing Laboratory Glassware
- •1.2 Flexible Tubing
- •1.2.1 Introduction
- •1.2.2 Physical Properties of Flexible Tubing
- •1.3 Corks, Rubber Stoppers, and Enclosures
- •1.3.1 Corks
- •1.3.2 Rubber Stoppers
- •1.3.3 Preholed Stoppers
- •1.3.4 Inserting Glass Tubing into Stoppers
- •1.3.5 Removing Glass from Stoppers and Flexible Tubing
- •1.3.6 Film Enclosures
- •1.4 O-Rings
- •1.4.2 Chemical Resistance of O-Ring Material
- •1.4.3 O-Ring Sizes
- •2 Measurement
- •2.1 Measurement: The Basics
- •2.1.1 Uniformity, Reliability, and Accuracy
- •2.1.2 History of the Metric System
- •2.1.3 The Base Units
- •2.1.4 The Use of Prefixes in the Metric System
- •2.1.5 Measurement Rules
- •2.2 Length
- •2.2.1 The Ruler
- •2.2.2 How to Measure Length
- •2.2.3 The Caliper
- •2.2.4 The Micrometer
- •2.3 Volume
- •2.3.1 The Concepts of Volume Measurement
- •2.3.2 Background of Volume Standards
- •2.3.4 Materials of Volumetric Construction #1 Plastic
- •2.3.5 Materials of Volumetric Construction #2 Glass
- •2.3.6 Reading Volumetric Ware
- •2.3.7 General Practices of Volumetric Ware Use
- •2.3.8 Calibrations, Calibration, and Accuracy
- •2.3.9 Correcting Volumetric Readings
- •2.3.10 Volumetric Flasks
- •2.3.11 Graduated Cylinders
- •2.3.12 Pipettes
- •2.3.13 Burettes
- •2.3.14 Types of Burettes
- •2.3.15 Care and Use of Burettes
- •2.4 Weight and Mass
- •2.4.1 Tools for Weighing
- •2.4.2 Weight Versus Mass Versus Density
- •2.4.3 Air Buoyancy
- •2.4.5 Balance Location
- •2.4.6 Balance Reading
- •2.4.7 The Spring Balance
- •2.4.8 The Lever Arm Balance
- •2.4.9 Beam Balances
- •2.4.10 Analytical Balances
- •2.4.11 The Top-Loading Balance
- •2.4.12 Balance Verification
- •2.4.13 Calibration Weights
- •2.5 Temperature
- •2.5.1 TheNature of Temperature Measurement
- •2.5.2 The Physics of Temperature-Taking
- •2.5.3 Expansion-Based Thermometers
- •2.5.4 Linear Expansion Thermometers
- •2.5.5 Volumetric Expansion Thermometers
- •2.5.7 Thermometer Calibration
- •2.5.8 Thermometer Lag
- •2.5.9 Air Bubbles in Liquid Columns
- •2.5.10 Pressure Expansion Thermometers
- •2.5.11 Thermocouples
- •2.5.12 Resistance Thermometers
- •3.1 Joints and Connections
- •3.1.1 Standard Taper Joints
- •3.1.2 Ball-and-Socket Joints
- •3.1.3 The O-Ring Joint
- •3.1.4 Hybrids and Alternative Joints
- •3.1.5 Special Connectors
- •3.2 Stopcocks and Valves
- •3.2.1 Glass Stopcocks
- •3.2.2 Teflon Stopcocks
- •3.2.3 Rotary Valves
- •3.2.4 Stopcock Design Variations
- •3.3.1 Storage and Use of Stopcocks and Joints
- •3.3.2 Preparation for Use
- •3.3.3 Types of Greases
- •3.3.4 The Teflon Sleeve
- •3.3.5 Applying Grease to Stopcocks and Joints
- •3.3.6 Preventing Glass Stopcocks and Joints from Sticking or Breaking on a Working System
- •3.3.7 Unsticking Joints and Stopcocks
- •3.3.8 Leaking Stopcocks and Joints
- •3.3.9 What to Do About Leaks in Stopcocks and Joints
- •3.3.10 General Tips
- •3.4 Glass Tubing
- •3.4.1 The Basics of Glass Tubing
- •3.4.2 Calculating the Inside Diameter (I.D.)
- •3.4.3 Sample Volume Calculations
- •4 Cleaning Glassware
- •4.1 The Clean Laboratory
- •4.1.1 Basic Cleaning Concepts
- •4.1.2 Safety
- •4.1.3 Removing Stopcock Grease
- •4.1.4 Soap and Water
- •4.1.5 Ultrasonic Cleaners
- •4.1.6 Organic Solvents
- •4.1.7 The Base Bath
- •4.1.8 Acids and Oxidizers
- •4.1.9 Chromic Acid
- •4.1.10 Hydrofluoric Acid
- •4.1.11 Extra Cleaning Tips
- •4.1.12 Additional Cleaning Problems and Solutions
- •4.1.13 Last Resort Cleaning Solutions
- •5 Compressed Gases
- •5.1 Compressed GasTanks
- •5.1.1 Types of Gases
- •5.1.2 The Dangers of Compressed Gas
- •5.1.3 CGA Fittings
- •5.1.4 Safety Aspects of Compressed Gas Tanks
- •5.1.5 Safety Practices Using Compressed Gases
- •5.1.6 In Case of Emergency
- •5.1.7 Gas Compatibility with Various Materials
- •5.2 The Regulator
- •5.2.1 The Parts of the Regulator
- •5.2.2 House Air Pressure System
- •5.2.4 How to Use Regulators Safely
- •5.2.6 How to Purchase a Regulator
- •6 High and Low Temperature
- •6.1 High Temperature
- •6.1.1 TheDynamics of Heat in the Lab
- •6.1.2 General Safety Precautions
- •6.1.3 Open Flames
- •6.1.4 Steam
- •6.1.5 Thermal Radiation
- •6.1.6 Transfer of Energy
- •6.1.7 Hot Air Guns
- •6.1.8 Electrical Resistance Heating
- •6.1.9 Alternatives to Heat
- •6.2 Low Temperature
- •6.2.1 TheDynamics of Cold in the Lab
- •6.2.2 Room Temperature Tap Water (=20°C)
- •6.2.8 Safety with Slush Baths
- •6.2.9 Containment of Cold Materials
- •6.2.10 Liquid (Cryogenic) Gas Tanks
- •7 Vacuum Systems
- •7.1 How to Destroy a Vacuum System
- •7.2.1 Preface
- •7.2.2 How to Use a Vacuum System
- •7.2.4 Pressure, Vacuum, and Force
- •7.2.5 Gases, Vapors, and the Gas Laws
- •7.2.6 Vapor Pressure
- •7.2.7 How to Make (and Maintain) a Vacuum
- •7.2.8 Gas Flow
- •7.2.9 Throughput and Pumping Speed
- •7.3 Pumps
- •7.3.1 The Purpose of Pumps
- •7.3.2 The Aspirator
- •7.3.3 Types and Features of Mechanical Pumps
- •7.3.4 Connection, Use, Maintenance, and Safety
- •7.3.5 Condensable Vapors
- •7.3.6 Traps for Pumps
- •7.3.7 Mechanical Pump Oils
- •7.3.8 The Various Mechanical Pump Oils
- •7.3.9 Storing Mechanical Pumps
- •7.3.11 Ultra-High Vacuum Levels Without Ultra-High
- •7.3.12 Diffusion Pumps
- •7.3.13 Attaching a Diffusion Pump to a Vacuum System
- •7.3.14 How to Use a Diffusion Pump
- •7.3.15 Diffusion Pump Limitations
- •7.3.17 Diffusion Pump Maintenance
- •7.3.18 Toepler Pumps
- •7.4 Traps
- •7.4.1 The Purpose and Functions of Traps
- •7.4.2 Types of Traps
- •7.4.3 Proper Use of Cold Traps
- •7.4.4 Maintenance of Cold Traps
- •7.4.5 Separation Traps
- •7.4.6 Liquid Traps
- •7.5 Vacuum Gauges
- •7.5.2 The Mechanical Gauge Family
- •7.5.4 The Liquid Gauge Family
- •7.5.5 The Manometer
- •7.5.6 The McLeod Gauge
- •7.5.7 How to Read a McLeod Gauge
- •7.5.8 Bringing a McLeod Gauge to Vacuum Conditions
- •7.5.10 The Tipping McLeod Gauge
- •7.5.11 Condensable Vapors and the McLeod Gauge
- •7.5.12 Mercury Contamination from McLeod Gauges
- •7.5.13 Cleaning a McLeod Gauge
- •7.5.14 Thermocouple and Pirani Gauges
- •7.5.15 The Pirani Gauge
- •7.5.16 Cleaning Pirani Gauges
- •7.5.17 The Thermocouple Gauge
- •7.5.18 Cleaning Thermocouple Gauges
- •7.5.19 The lonization Gauge Family
- •7.5.20 The Hot-Cathode Ion Gauge
- •7.5.21 Cleaning Hot-Cathode Ion Gauges
- •7.5.24 The Momentum Transfer Gauge (MTG)
- •7.6 Leak Detection and Location
- •7.6.1 AllAbout Leaks
- •7.6.3 False Leaks
- •7.6.4 Real Leaks
- •7.6.5 Isolation to Find Leaks
- •7.6.6 Probe Gases and Liquids
- •7.6.7 The Tesla Coil
- •7.6.8 Soap Bubbles
- •7.6.9 Pirani or Thermocouple Gauges
- •7.6.10 Helium Leak Detection
- •7.6.11 Helium Leak Detection Techniques
- •7.6.13 Repairing Leaks
- •7.7 More Vacuum System Information
- •7.7.1 The Designs of Things
- •8 The Gas-Oxygen Torch
- •8.1.2 How to Light a Gas-Oxygen Torch
- •8.1.3 How to Prevent a Premix Torch from Popping
- •8.2.2 How to Tip-Off a Sample
- •8.2.3 How to Fire-Polish the End of a Glass Tube
- •8.2.4 Brazing and Silver Soldering
- •Appendix
- •A.2 Suggestions for Glassware Requests
- •B.1 Introduction
- •B.2 Polyolefins
- •B.3 Engineering Resins
- •B.4 Fluorocarbons
- •B.5 Chemical Resistance Chart
- •C.1 Chapter 1
- •C.4 Chapter 4
- •C.5 Chapter 5 & Chapter 6
- •C.6 Chapter 7
- •C.7 Chapter 8
- •D.1 Laboratory Safety
- •D.2 Chemical Safety
- •D.3 Chapter 1
- •D.4 Chapter 2
- •D.5 Chapter 3
- •D.6 Chapter 4
- •D.7 Chapter 5 and the Second Half of Chapter 6
- •D.8 Chapter 7
- •D.9 Chapter 8
- •Index
58 |
Materials in the Lab |
paper support film usually tears off during this process. The film forms a closure that can prevent spillage from the container during normal use.
PARAFILM is best used over water solutions, but may be used for short periods over polar-hydrocarbon solutions. Other organic solutions will dissolve the film. It is not designed to prevent spills from tipped-over containers, nor can it contain pressure. If you need to shake a container, do not depend on PARAFILM to maintain its seal. When agitating a container, leave a thumb, finger, or even the palm of your hand (depending on the size of the opening) over the seal to ensure against leakage.
PARAFILM is excellent for keeping air and dust out of containers, and it can be used to maintain containers clean when stored. Although PARAFILM does not wet (liquids run right off it), once used, it should be discarded to avoid contaminating other work. If it has been in contact with toxic materials, it should be thrown into a proper hazardous waste receptacle.
1.4O-Rings
1.4.1O-Rings in the Laboratory
O-rings are commonly found on mechanical vacuum pumps, rotary valves, and O- ring joints. O-rings are used to separate environments. If an O-ring is attacked by the chemicals from one or both of these separated environments and fails, it will lose its protective sealing capabilities. Similarly, if an O-ring is left in a chemically destructive environment, it may become dysfunctional without ever having been used.
1.4.2 Chemical Resistance of O-Ring Material
When an O-ring needs replacement (such as in a mechanical vacuum pump), the manufacturer can provide, or recommend, an O-ring that will be resistant to the pump's vacuum fluid. On the other hand, when an O-ring is being used in varying conditions, you will be responsible for the selection of the proper O-ring material to maintain the integrity of your system and the health and safety of the operators.
As is typical for most polymers, the material composition of an O-ring may be suitable for one chemical environment and unsuitable for another. For example, ethylene propylene rubber is excellent in water conditions and exhibits essentially no swelling in these environments. However, if any lubrication is required, a petroleum-based lubricant will deteriorate the rubber. If needed, a silicone, glycerin, or ethylene glycol lubricant is recommended.
An increase in size is a common reaction to O-ring materials in specific harsh environments. This is not necessarily bad if expansion enhances sealing. The worst that happens is that when the apparatus is taken apart, the O-ring is no
O-Rings 1.4 |
59 |
longer able to fit where it came from and a new one must be used. Typically, however, the distorted O-ring tends to expand beyond its confines causing leaks and creating a mess.
There are seven primary materials from which O-rings are made. Table 1.9 catalogs these different materials, listing suitable and unsuitable chemical contacts and properties for each. Also included is a single O-ring price comparison (these 1991 prices are not meant to be absolute and are only offered to provide comparison).
By its design, an O-ring should not require stopcock grease to improve its seal, although the grease may provide peripheral assistance. For example, stopcock grease may be used on rotary valves to facilitate the axial movement of O-rings against the glass barrel. In addition, it may also be used as an extra protective barrier against solvents. For example, if you are using Viton O-rings in a ketone environment (i.e., acetone), you could lay a thin film of silicone grease on the O-ring to protect the surface. The easiest way to apply a thin film of grease is to rub a bit of grease on your fingertips,* then rub it onto the O-ring. This method will limit the contact between the O-ring and the ketone, which in turn will increase the longevity of the O-ring. Do not, however, depend on this technique as a standard, or long-term, O-ring protection procedure.
Incidentally, several companies cover one type of O-ring material (i.e., Buna-N) with a Teflon sheath. These O-rings have the resiliency of less expensive O-rings with the chemical inertness of Teflon.
1.4.3 O-Ring Sizes
There are almost 400 standard-size O-rings. This number does not take into consideration military sizes, special orders, and unique shapes. Most standard-size O-
Wall thickness
7T W
Fig. 1.19 The O-ring dimensions.
*Be sure your hands are clean, to minimize contamination as much as possible.
60 |
Materials in the Lab |
rings are for use in reciprocating seals, static seals, and rotary seals, each of which makes contact on the inside or outside diameter of the O-ring.
O-ring dimensions are based on the ring's internal diameter (I.D.) and its wall thickness* (W) (see Fig. 1.19), which are typically measured in English measurements (in thousandths of an inch). However, O-rings are not ordered by outside diameter or wall thickness. Rather, you order by a standardized size code called a dash number. O-ring sizes are grouped into common thicknesses, and the first number of the dash number represents a wall thickness group. All O-rings with the same first number have common wall thicknesses. Table 1.10 shows the dash number and sizes of metric dimensions of four commonly used O-ring thicknesses.
Table 1.9 Comparison of Primary O-ring Material
Name |
Suitable for ... |
Unsuitable for... |
Comments |
BUNA N (nitrile) Aromatic hydrocar- |
Halogen compounds, |
bons, dilute acids and |
halogenated hydrocar- |
bases, silicones, |
bons (carbon tetra- |
helium & hydrogen |
chloride, |
|
trichlorethylene), |
|
ketones (acetone), |
|
nitro compounds, or |
|
strong acids |
Typical color: black. Temperature range: -50 to 120°C. Easily compressed. Density: 1.00. Lowest permeability rates for gases of all elastomers.
Price (1) Size 001 O-Ring
$0.25
E.P. (ethylene pro- |
Water, dilute acids and |
Petroleum oils or |
Typical color: purple. |
$0.85 |
pylene) |
alkalies, ketones, alco- |
diester base lubricants |
Temperature range: -54 |
|
|
hols, phosphate ester |
|
to 149°C. Easily com- |
|
|
base fluids, and sili- |
|
pressed. Density: 0.86. |
|
|
cone oils |
|
|
|
FETFE (fluo- |
Alcohols, aldehydes, |
Ketones and ethers |
Typical color: black |
$0.85 |
roelastomer with |
chlorinated organics, |
|
Temperature range: -23 |
|
TFE additives) |
paraffins, concen- |
|
to 240°C. Firm compres- |
|
|
trated mineral acids, |
|
sion. Density: 1.85 |
|
|
and mild bases |
|
|
|
Kalrez (perfluoro- |
All chemicals |
Alkali metals and fluo- |
Typical color: black. |
$21.50 |
elastomer) |
|
rine |
Temperature range:-37 |
|
|
|
|
to 260°C. Firm compres- |
|
|
|
|
sion. Density: 2.02. |
|
|
|
|
Chemically inert proper- |
|
|
|
|
ties similar to Teflon, but |
|
|
|
|
mechanically similar to |
|
|
|
|
Viton. Very expensive. |
|
'Occasionally, the outside diameter (O.D.) is also referred to, but such references are redundant.
O-Rings 1.4 |
|
|
61 |
Table 1.9 Comparison of Primary O-ring Material (continued) |
|
||
Name |
Suitable for... Unsuitable for... |
Comments |
6 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
8 |
-H |
Silicone
Teflon (PTFE)
Viton A (hexafluoroprpylene and 1, 1-difluoro-eth- ylene)
Alcohols, aldehydes, |
Petroleum oils or |
Typical color: brick red $0.90 |
ammonia, dry heat, |
fuels, aldehydes, con- |
Temperature range:-60 |
chlorinated diphenyls, |
centrated mineral |
to 260°C. Easily com- |
and hydrogen perox- |
acids, ketones, esters, |
pressed. Density: 1.15— |
ide |
and silicone fluids |
1.32 |
All chemicals |
Alkali metals and fluo- |
|
rine |
Typical color: white. |
$0.85 |
Temperature range:-180 to 260°C. Firm compression, but poor resiliency. Density: 2.20.
Acids, halogenated |
Aldehydes, ketones, |
aromatic and aliphatic |
ammonia, fluorides/ |
hydrocarbons, alco- |
acetates, acrylonitrile, |
hols, concentrated |
hydrozine/analine, |
bases, non-polar com- |
and concentrated min- |
pounds, oxidizing |
eral acids |
agents, and metalloid |
|
halides |
|
Typical color: brown. |
$0.90 |
Temperature range:-30 to 200°C. Firm compression. Density: 1.85. Probably the best all round O-ring material.
62 |
Materials in the Lab |
Table 1.10 Representative Dash Numbers
and Dimensions of O-Rings in Metric Sizes
Dash |
I.D. |
W |
Dash |
I.D. |
W |
Dash |
I.D. |
W |
Dash |
I.D. |
W |
# |
(mm) |
(mm) |
# |
(mm) |
(mm) |
# |
(mm) |
(mm) |
# |
(mm) |
(mm) |
001 |
0.74 |
1.52 |
|
|
|
201 |
4.34 |
3.53 |
|
|
|
002 |
1.07 |
1.52 |
102 |
1.25 |
2.62 |
202 |
5.94 |
3.53 |
|
|
|
003 |
1.42 |
1.52 |
103 |
2.06 |
2.62 |
203 |
7.52 |
3.53 |
|
|
|
004 |
1.78 |
1.78 |
104 |
2.85 |
2.62 |
204 |
9.12 |
3.53 |
|
|
|
005 |
2.57 |
1.78 |
105 |
3.63 |
2.62 |
205 |
10.69 |
3.53 |
|
|
|
006 |
2.90 |
1.78 |
106 |
4.42 |
2.62 |
206 |
12.29 |
3.53 |
|
|
|
007 |
3.68 |
1.78 |
107 |
5.23 |
2.62 |
207 |
13.87 |
3.53 |
|
|
|
008 |
4.47 |
1.78 |
108 |
6.02 |
2.62 |
208 |
15.47 |
3.53 |
|
|
|
009 |
5.28 |
1.78 |
109 |
7.59 |
2.62 |
209 |
17.04 |
3.53 |
309 |
10.46 |
5.33 |
010 |
6.07 |
1.78 |
110 |
9.19 |
2.62 |
210 |
18.64 |
3.53 |
310 |
12.07 |
5.33 |
Oil |
7.65 |
1.78 |
111 |
10.77 |
2.62 |
211 |
20.22 |
3.53 |
311 |
13.64 |
5.33 |
012 |
9.25 |
1.78 |
112 |
12.37 |
2.62 |
212 |
21.82 |
3.53 |
312 |
15.24 |
5.33 |
013 |
10.82 |
1.78 |
113 |
13.90 |
2.62 |
213 |
23.39 |
3.53 |
313 |
16.81 |
5.33 |
014 |
12.42 |
1.78 |
114 |
15.50 |
2.62 |
214 |
24.99 |
3.53 |
314 |
18.42 |
5.33 |
015 |
14.00 |
1.78 |
115 |
17.12 |
2.62 |
215 |
26.57 |
3.53 |
315 |
19.99 |
5.33 |
016 |
15.60 |
1.78 |
116 |
18.72 |
2.62 |
216 |
28.17 |
3.53 |
316 |
21.59 |
5.33 |
017 |
17.17 |
1.78 |
117 |
20.30 |
2.62 |
217 |
29.74 |
3.53 |
317 |
23.16 |
5.33 |
018 |
18.77 |
1.78 |
118 |
21.89 |
2.62 |
218 |
31.34 |
3.53 |
318 |
24.77 |
5.33 |
019 |
20.35 |
1.78 |
119 |
23.47 |
2.62 |
219 |
32.92 |
3.53 |
319 |
26.34 |
5.33 |
020 |
21.95 |
1.78 |
120 |
25.07 |
2.62 |
220 |
34.52 |
3.53 |
320 |
27.94 |
5.33 |
021 |
23.52 |
1.78 |
121 |
26.65 |
2.62 |
221 |
36.09 |
3.53 |
321 |
29.51 |
5.33 |
022 |
25.12 |
1.78 |
122 |
28.25 |
2.62 |
222 |
37.69 |
3.53 |
322 |
31.12 |
5.33 |
023 |
26.70 |
1.78 |
123 |
29.82 |
2.62 |
223 |
40.87 |
3.53 |
323 |
32.69 |
5.33 |
024 |
28.30 |
1.78 |
124 |
31.42 |
2.62 |
224 |
44.04 |
3.53 |
324 |
34.29 |
5.33 |
025 |
29.87 |
1.78 |
125 |
33.00 |
2.62 |
225 |
47.22 |
3.53 |
325 |
37.47 |
5.33 |
026 |
31.47 |
1.78 |
126 |
34.59 |
2.62 |
226 |
50.39 |
3.53 |
326 |
40.64 |
5.33 |
027 |
33.05 |
1.78 |
127 |
36.17 |
2.62 |
227 |
53.57 |
3.53 |
327 |
43.82 |
5.33 |
028 |
34.65 |
1.78 |
128 |
37.77 |
2.62 |
228 |
56.74 |
3.53 |
328 |
46.99 |
5.33 |
029 |
37.82 |
1.78 |
129 |
39.35 |
2.62 |
229 |
59.92 |
3.53 |
329 |
50.17 |
5.33 |
030 |
41.00 |
1.78 |
130 |
40.95 |
2.62 |
230 |
59.92 |
3.53 |
330 |
53.34 |
5.33 |
031 |
42.52 |
1.78 |
131 |
42.52 |
2.62 |
231 |
66.27 |
3.53 |
331 |
56.52 |
5.33 |
032 |
47.35 |
1.78 |
132 |
44.12 |
2.62 |
232 |
69.44 |
3.53 |
332 |
59.69 |
5.33 |
033 |
45.70 |
1.78 |
133 |
45.69 |
2.62 |
233 |
72.62 |
3.53 |
333 |
62.87 |
5.33 |
034 |
53.70 |
1.78 |
134 |
47.29 |
2.62 |
234 |
75.79 |
3.53 |
334 |
66.04 |
5.33 |
035 |
56.87 |
1.78 |
135 |
48.90 |
2.62 |
235 |
78.97 |
3.53 |
335 |
69.22 |
5.33 |
036 |
60.05 |
1.78 |
136 |
50.47 |
2.62 |
236 |
82.14 |
3.53 |
336 |
72.39 |
5.33 |
037 |
63.22 |
1.78 |
137 |
52.07 |
2.62 |
237 |
85.32 |
3.53 |
337 |
75.57 |
5.33 |
038 |
66.40 |
1.78 |
138 |
53.64 |
2.62 |
238 |
88.49 |
3.53 |
338 |
78.74 |
5.33 |
039 |
69.57 |
1.78 |
139 |
55.24 |
2.62 |
239 |
91.67 |
3.53 |
339 |
81.92 |
5.33 |
040 |
72.75 |
1.78 |
140 |
56.82 |
2.62 |
240 |
94.84 |
3.53 |
340 |
85.09 |
5.33 |
References |
63 |
References
1. ASTM Designation C 162-85a, "Standard Definitions of Terms Relating to Glass and Glass Products," Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Vol. 15.02.
2.F.M. Ernsberger, Glass: Science and Technology, Vol. V, eds., D.R. Uhlmann and N.J. Dreidle, Academic Press, New York., 1980, Chapter 1.
3.G.W. McLellan and E.B. Shand, Glass Engineering Handbook, 3rd ed., McGrawHill, New York., 1984, pp. 2-20.
4.R.C. Plumb, "Antique Windowpanes and the Flow of Supercooled Liquids," Journal of Chemical Education, 66, pp. 994-996 (1989).
5."Practical Hints on Processing Duran®," prepared by Schott Glass.
6.G.W. McLellan and E.B. Shand, Glass Engineering Handbook, 3rd ed. McGrawHill, New York, 1984, pp. 1-7
7.D.C. Holloway, The Physical Properties of Glass, Wykeham Publications LTD, London, 1973, p. 205.
8.J.E. Stanworth, Physical Properties of Glass, Oxford University Press, London, 1953, p. 209.
9.W.A. Weyl, "Chemical Composition and Constitution of Glasses," Proceedings of the Seventh Symposium of the American Scientific Glassblowers Society, pp. 1623 (1962).
10.Ibid, Ref. 6, pp. 1-7.
11.C.S. Green, "The Art and Science of Glass Making," Proceedings of the Seventh Symposium of the American Scientific Glassblowers Society, pp. 7-15 (1962).
12.A.A. Smith, "Consumption of Base by Glassware," Journal of Chemical Education, 63, pp. 85-86(1986).
13.M.J. Souza, "Super Thin Windows for High Density 3He Target Cells," Fusion, 42, pp 20-28 (1995).
14.V.O. Altemose, "Gas Permeation Through Glass," Proceedings of the Seventh Symposium of the American Scientific Glassblowers Society, pp. 61-70 (1962).
15.W.H. Kohl, Handbook of Materials and Techniquesfor Vacuum Devices, American Institute of Physics, Van Nostrand Reinhold, Woodbury, NY, 1967, p. 11.
16.G. Hetherington, K.H. Jack, and M.W. Ramsay, "The High Temperature Electrolysis of Vitreous Silica, Part I. Oxidation, Ultraviolet Induced Fluroescence, and Irradiation Colour," Physics and Chemistry of Glasses, 6, pp. 6-15 (1965).
17.R. Bruckner, "Properties and Structure of Vitreous Silica. I," Journal of Non-Crystal- line Solids, 5, pp. 123-175 (1970).
18.R. Bruckner, "Properties and Structure of Vitreous Silica. I," Journal of Non-Crystal- line Solids, 5, pp. 177-216 (1971).
19.Don Kempf, personal conversation, 1989.
20.W.H. Brown, "A Simple Method of Distinguishing Borosilicate and Soda Lime Glass," Journal of Chemical Education, 56, p. 692 (1979).
64 |
References |
21.Kimble Glass Technical Data, Owens-Illinois Inc., Toledo, Ohio 43666, p. G-3, (1960).
22.Ibid, Ref. 6, p. 64.
23.T.C. Baker and F.W. Preston, "The Effect of Water on the Strength of Glass," Journal of Applied Physics, 17, pp. 179-188 (1946).
24.V.K. Moorthy and F.V. Tooley, "Effect of Certain Organic Liquids on Strength of Glass," Journal of the American Ceramic Society, 39, pp. 215-217 (1956).
25.T.A. Michalske and S.W. Freidman, "A Molecular Mechanism for Stress Corrosion in Vitreous Silica,: Journal of the American Ceramic Society, 66, pp. 284—288 (1983).
26.T. A. Michalske and B.C. Bunker, "Slow Fracture Model Based on Strained Silicate Structure," Journal of Applied Physics, 56, pp. 2686-2693, (1984).
27.E.B. Shand, Glass Engineering Handbook, 2nd Ed. McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., New York, 1958, p. 141.
28.Ibid Ref. 27, p. 143.
29.J. Walker, "What Causes the Color in Plastic Objects Stressed Between Polarizing Filters?," Scientific American., 246, pp. 146-52 (1983).
30.I.C.P. Smith, "Safety Letter; ref: Insertion or Removal of Glass Tubes in Rubber Bungs by Use of Cork Borers," Journal of the B.S.S.G., 12, p. 62 (1975).