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THE LABORATORY COMPANION

THE LABORATORY COMPANION

A Practical Guide to Materials, Equipment, andTechnique

Gary S. Coyne

California State University at Los Angeles

A WILEY-INTERSCIENCE PUBLICATION

JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC.

New York • Chichester • Weinheim • Brisbane • Singapore • Toronto

97-16689

This text is printed on acid-free paper. ©

Copyright © 1997 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Published simultaneously in Canada.

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning or otherwise, except as permitted under Sections 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without either the prior written permission of the Publisher, or authorization through payment of the appropriate per-copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, (508) 750-8400, fax (508) 750-4744. Requests to the Publisher for permission should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 605 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10158-0012, (212) 850-6011, fax (212) 850-6008, E-Mail: PERMREQ@WILEY.COM.

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data:

Coyne, Gary S.

The laboratory companion : a practical guide to materials, equipment, and technique / Gary S. Coyne,

p.cm.

Rev. ed. of: The laboratory handbook of materials, equipment, and technique. cl992.

"A Wiley-Interscience publication."

Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-471-18422-5 (alk. paper)

1. Chemical apparatus—Handbooks, manuals, etc. 2. Chemical laboratories—Handbooks, manuals, etc. I. Coyne, Gary S. Laboratory handbook of materials, equipment, and technique.

II. Title. QD53.C69 1998 542—dc21

Printed in the United States of America 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2

/ dedicate this book to my wife, Mara.

If you want to find out if your spouse loves you, write a book. I am a lucky person: my wife loves me, and I have this book and our still-successful marriage to prove it. If she didn 't love me, I still might have this book, but the marriage would have been gone long ago.

Contents

Foreword

 

xv

Preface

 

 

xvii

1 Materials in the Lab

1

1.1

Glass

 

1

 

1.1.1

Introduction

1

 

1.1.2

Structural Properties of Glass

1

 

1.1.3

Phase Separation

5

 

1.1.4

Devitrification

7

 

1.1.5

Different Types of Glass Used in the Lab

9

 

1.1.6

Grading Glass and Graded Seals

18

 

1.1.7

Separating Glass by Type

19

 

1.1.8

Physical Properties of Glass and Mechanisms of Glass Fracture

22

 

1.1.9

Stress in Glass

26

 

1.1.10

Managing Thermal and Physical Stress in the Laboratory

28

 

1.1.11

Tempered Glass

31

 

1.1.12

Glass and Internal Pressure

33

 

1.1.13

Limiting Broken Glass in the Lab

36

 

1.1.14

Storing Glass

37

 

1.1.15

Marking Glass

38

 

1.1.16

Consumer's Guide to Purchasing Laboratory Glassware

39

1.2

Flexible Tubing

41

 

1.2.1

Introduction

41

 

1.2.2

Physical Properties of Flexible Tubing

42

 

1.2.3

Chemical Resistance Properties of Flexible Tubing

45

1.3

Corks, Rubber Stoppers, and Enclosures

49

 

1.3.1

Corks

49

 

1.3.2

Rubber Stoppers

50

 

1.3.3

Preholed Stoppers

51

 

1.3.4

Inserting Glass Tubing into Stoppers

55

 

1.3.5

Removing Glass from Stoppers and Flexible Tubing

57

 

1.3.6

Film Enclosures

57

1.4

O-Rings

58

 

1.4.1

O-Rings in the Laboratory

58

 

1.4.2 Chemical Resistance of O-Ring Material

58

 

1.4.3

O-Ring Sizes

59

References

 

63

 

 

 

vii

viii

Contents

 

2 Measurement

65

2.1

Measurement: The Basics

65

 

2.1.1

Uniformity, Reliability, and Accuracy

65

 

2.1.2

History of the Metric System

66

 

2.1.3

The Base Units

71

 

2.1.4

The Use of Prefixes in the Metric System

76

 

2.1.5

Measurement Rules

76

2.2

Length

 

79

 

2.2.1

The Ruler

79

 

2.2.2

How to Measure Length

79

 

2.2.3

The Caliper

80

 

2.2.4

The Micrometer

83

2.3

Volume

85

 

2.3.1

The Concepts of Volume Measurement

85

 

2.3.2

Background of Volume Standards

85

 

2.3.3

Categories, Markings, and Tolerances of Volumetric Ware

87

 

2 3.4

Materials of Volumetric Construction #1 Plastic

89

 

2.3.5

Materials of Volumetric Construction #2 Glass

91

 

2.3.6

Reading Volumetric Ware

93

 

2.3.7

General Practices of Volumetric Ware Use

94

 

2.3.8

Calibrations, Calibration, and Accuracy

95

 

2.3.9

Correcting Volumetric Readings

97

 

2.3.10

Volumetric Flasks

101

 

2.3.11

Graduated Cylinders

104

 

2.3.12

Pipettes

107

 

2.3.13

Burettes

113

 

2.3.14

Types of Burettes

115

 

2.3.15

Care and Use of Burettes

116

2.4

Weight and Mass

118

 

2.4.1

Tools for Weighing

118

 

2.4.2

Weight Versus Mass Versus Density

119

 

2.4.3

Air Buoyancy

120

 

2.4.4

Accuracy, Precision, and Other Balance Limitations

122

 

2.4.5

Balance Location

123

 

2.4.6

Balance Reading

125

 

2.4.7

The Spring Balance

127

 

2.4.8

The Lever Arm Balance

128

 

2.4.9

Beam Balances

131

 

2.4.10

Analytical Balances

132

 

2.4.11

The Top-Loading Balance

136

 

2.4.12

Balance Verification

137

 

2.4.13

Calibration Weights

139

2.5

Temperature

144

 

2.5.1 The Nature of Temperature Measurement

144

 

2.5.2

The Physics of Temperature-Taking

147

 

2.5.3

Expansion-Based Thermometers

150

 

 

Contents

ix

 

2.5.4

Linear Expansion Thermometers

151

 

2.5.5

Volumetric Expansion Thermometers

151

 

2.5.6

Short-and Long-Term Temperature Variations

156

 

2.5.7

Thermometer Calibration

157

 

2.5.8

Thermometer Lag

158

 

2.5.9

Air Bubbles in Liquid Columns

158

 

2.5.10

Pressure Expansion Thermometers

160

 

2.5.11

Thermocouples

161

 

2 5.12

Resistance Thermometers

167

References

 

170

3 Joints, Stopcocks, and Glass Tubing

173

3.1

Joints and Connections

173

 

3.1.1

Standard Taper Joints

173

 

3 1.2

Ball-and-Socket Joints

178

 

3.1.3

The O-Ring Joint

179

 

3.1.4

Hybrids and Alternative Joints

180

 

3.1.5

Special Connectors

181

3.2

Stopcocks and Valves

184

 

3.2.1

Glass Stopcocks

184

 

3.2.2

Teflon Stopcocks

187

 

3.2.3

Rotary Valves

189

 

3.2.4

Stopcock Design Variations

191

3.3 Maintenance and Care of Joints, Stopcocks, and Glassware

192

 

3.3.1 Storage and Use of Stopcocks and Joints

192

 

3.3.2

Preparation for Use

196

 

3.3.3

Types of Greases

196

 

3.3.4

The Teflon Sleeve

203

 

3.3.5

Applying Grease to Stopcocks and Joints

203

3.3.6Preventing Glass Stopcocks and Joints from Sticking

 

 

or Breaking on a Working System

204

 

3.3.7

Unsticking Joints and Stopcocks

205

 

3.3.8

Leaking Stopcocks and Joints

208

 

3.3.9

What to Do About Leaks in Stopcocks and Joints

211

 

3.3.10

General Tips

212

3.4

Glass Tubing

212

 

3.4.1

The Basics of Glass Tubing

212

 

3.4.2

Calculating the Inside Diameter (I.D.)

213

 

3.4.3

Sample Volume Calculations

215

References

 

229

4 Cleaning Glassware

231

4.1

The Clean Laboratory

231

 

4.1.1

Basic Cleaning Concepts

231

 

4.1.2

Safety

234

x

Contents

 

 

 

 

4.1.3

Removing Stopcock Grease

 

236

 

4.1.4

Soap and Water

 

236

 

4.1.5

Ultrasonic Cleaners

 

238

 

4.1.6

Organic Solvents

 

239

 

4.1.7

The Base Bath

 

240

 

4.1.8

Acids and Oxidizers

 

242

 

4.1.9

Chromic Acid

 

244

 

4.1.10

Hydrofluoric Acid

 

245

 

4.1.11

Extra Cleaning Tips

 

248

 

4.1.12

Additional Cleaning Problems and Solutions

 

249

 

4.1.13

Last Resort Cleaning Solutions

 

250

References

 

 

251

5 Compressed Gases

 

253

5.1

Compressed Gas Tanks

 

253

 

5.1.1

Types of Gases

 

253

 

5.1.2

The Dangers of Compressed Gas

 

254

 

5.1.3

CGA Fittings

 

256

 

5.1.4 Safety Aspects of Compressed Gas Tanks

 

257

 

5.1.5

Safety Practices Using Compressed Gases

 

269

 

5.1.6

In Case of Emergency

 

272

 

5.1.7

Gas Compatibility with Various Materials

 

273

5.2

The Regulator

 

278

 

5.2.1

The Parts of the Regulator

 

278

 

5.2.2

House Air Pressure System

 

281

 

5.2.3

How to Install a Regulator on a Compressed Gas Tank

 

281

 

5.2.4

How to Use Regulators Safely

 

283

 

5.2.5

How to Test for Leaks in a Compressed Gas System

 

283

 

5.2.6

How to Purchase a Regulator

 

284

6 High and Low Temperature

 

287

6.1

High Temperature

 

287

 

6.1.1 The Dynamics of Heat in the Lab

 

287

 

6.1.2

General Safety Precautions

 

288

 

6.1.3

Open Flames

 

288

 

6.1.4

Steam

 

292

 

6.1.5

Thermal Radiation

 

294

 

6.1.6

Transfer of Energy

 

294

 

6.1.7

Hot Air Guns

 

295

 

6. 1.8

Electrical Resistance Heating

 

296

 

6.1.9

Alternatives to Heat

 

300

6.2

Low Temperature

 

301

 

6.2.1

The Dynamics of Cold in the Lab

 

301

 

6.2.2

Room Temperature Tap Water (=20°C)

 

302

 

6.2.3

Ice(0°C)

.

302

 

6.2.4

Ice with Salts (0°C to -96.3°C)

 

302

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