- •Contents
- •Foreword
- •Preface
- •1 Materials in the Lab
- •2 Measurement
- •3 Joints, Stopcocks, and Glass Tubing
- •4 Cleaning Glassware
- •5 Compressed Gases
- •6 High and Low Temperature
- •7 Vacuum Systems
- •8 The Gas-Oxygen Torch
- •APPENDIX
- •Appendix A Preparing Drawings for a Technician
- •Index
- •Foreword
- •Preface
- •For the Second Edition
- •Please note:
- •1 Materials in the Lab
- •1.1 Glass
- •1.1.1 Introduction
- •1.1.2 Structural Properties of Glass
- •1.1.3 Phase Separation
- •1.1.4 Devitrification
- •1.1.5 Different Types of Glass Used in the Lab
- •1.1.6 Grading Glass and Graded Seals
- •1.1.7 Separating Glass by Type
- •1.1.9 Stress in Glass
- •1.1.11 Tempered Glass
- •1.1.13 Limiting Broken Glass in the Lab
- •1.1.14 Storing Glass
- •1.1.15 Marking Glass
- •1.1.16 Consumer's Guide to Purchasing Laboratory Glassware
- •1.2 Flexible Tubing
- •1.2.1 Introduction
- •1.2.2 Physical Properties of Flexible Tubing
- •1.3 Corks, Rubber Stoppers, and Enclosures
- •1.3.1 Corks
- •1.3.2 Rubber Stoppers
- •1.3.3 Preholed Stoppers
- •1.3.4 Inserting Glass Tubing into Stoppers
- •1.3.5 Removing Glass from Stoppers and Flexible Tubing
- •1.3.6 Film Enclosures
- •1.4 O-Rings
- •1.4.2 Chemical Resistance of O-Ring Material
- •1.4.3 O-Ring Sizes
- •2 Measurement
- •2.1 Measurement: The Basics
- •2.1.1 Uniformity, Reliability, and Accuracy
- •2.1.2 History of the Metric System
- •2.1.3 The Base Units
- •2.1.4 The Use of Prefixes in the Metric System
- •2.1.5 Measurement Rules
- •2.2 Length
- •2.2.1 The Ruler
- •2.2.2 How to Measure Length
- •2.2.3 The Caliper
- •2.2.4 The Micrometer
- •2.3 Volume
- •2.3.1 The Concepts of Volume Measurement
- •2.3.2 Background of Volume Standards
- •2.3.4 Materials of Volumetric Construction #1 Plastic
- •2.3.5 Materials of Volumetric Construction #2 Glass
- •2.3.6 Reading Volumetric Ware
- •2.3.7 General Practices of Volumetric Ware Use
- •2.3.8 Calibrations, Calibration, and Accuracy
- •2.3.9 Correcting Volumetric Readings
- •2.3.10 Volumetric Flasks
- •2.3.11 Graduated Cylinders
- •2.3.12 Pipettes
- •2.3.13 Burettes
- •2.3.14 Types of Burettes
- •2.3.15 Care and Use of Burettes
- •2.4 Weight and Mass
- •2.4.1 Tools for Weighing
- •2.4.2 Weight Versus Mass Versus Density
- •2.4.3 Air Buoyancy
- •2.4.5 Balance Location
- •2.4.6 Balance Reading
- •2.4.7 The Spring Balance
- •2.4.8 The Lever Arm Balance
- •2.4.9 Beam Balances
- •2.4.10 Analytical Balances
- •2.4.11 The Top-Loading Balance
- •2.4.12 Balance Verification
- •2.4.13 Calibration Weights
- •2.5 Temperature
- •2.5.1 TheNature of Temperature Measurement
- •2.5.2 The Physics of Temperature-Taking
- •2.5.3 Expansion-Based Thermometers
- •2.5.4 Linear Expansion Thermometers
- •2.5.5 Volumetric Expansion Thermometers
- •2.5.7 Thermometer Calibration
- •2.5.8 Thermometer Lag
- •2.5.9 Air Bubbles in Liquid Columns
- •2.5.10 Pressure Expansion Thermometers
- •2.5.11 Thermocouples
- •2.5.12 Resistance Thermometers
- •3.1 Joints and Connections
- •3.1.1 Standard Taper Joints
- •3.1.2 Ball-and-Socket Joints
- •3.1.3 The O-Ring Joint
- •3.1.4 Hybrids and Alternative Joints
- •3.1.5 Special Connectors
- •3.2 Stopcocks and Valves
- •3.2.1 Glass Stopcocks
- •3.2.2 Teflon Stopcocks
- •3.2.3 Rotary Valves
- •3.2.4 Stopcock Design Variations
- •3.3.1 Storage and Use of Stopcocks and Joints
- •3.3.2 Preparation for Use
- •3.3.3 Types of Greases
- •3.3.4 The Teflon Sleeve
- •3.3.5 Applying Grease to Stopcocks and Joints
- •3.3.6 Preventing Glass Stopcocks and Joints from Sticking or Breaking on a Working System
- •3.3.7 Unsticking Joints and Stopcocks
- •3.3.8 Leaking Stopcocks and Joints
- •3.3.9 What to Do About Leaks in Stopcocks and Joints
- •3.3.10 General Tips
- •3.4 Glass Tubing
- •3.4.1 The Basics of Glass Tubing
- •3.4.2 Calculating the Inside Diameter (I.D.)
- •3.4.3 Sample Volume Calculations
- •4 Cleaning Glassware
- •4.1 The Clean Laboratory
- •4.1.1 Basic Cleaning Concepts
- •4.1.2 Safety
- •4.1.3 Removing Stopcock Grease
- •4.1.4 Soap and Water
- •4.1.5 Ultrasonic Cleaners
- •4.1.6 Organic Solvents
- •4.1.7 The Base Bath
- •4.1.8 Acids and Oxidizers
- •4.1.9 Chromic Acid
- •4.1.10 Hydrofluoric Acid
- •4.1.11 Extra Cleaning Tips
- •4.1.12 Additional Cleaning Problems and Solutions
- •4.1.13 Last Resort Cleaning Solutions
- •5 Compressed Gases
- •5.1 Compressed GasTanks
- •5.1.1 Types of Gases
- •5.1.2 The Dangers of Compressed Gas
- •5.1.3 CGA Fittings
- •5.1.4 Safety Aspects of Compressed Gas Tanks
- •5.1.5 Safety Practices Using Compressed Gases
- •5.1.6 In Case of Emergency
- •5.1.7 Gas Compatibility with Various Materials
- •5.2 The Regulator
- •5.2.1 The Parts of the Regulator
- •5.2.2 House Air Pressure System
- •5.2.4 How to Use Regulators Safely
- •5.2.6 How to Purchase a Regulator
- •6 High and Low Temperature
- •6.1 High Temperature
- •6.1.1 TheDynamics of Heat in the Lab
- •6.1.2 General Safety Precautions
- •6.1.3 Open Flames
- •6.1.4 Steam
- •6.1.5 Thermal Radiation
- •6.1.6 Transfer of Energy
- •6.1.7 Hot Air Guns
- •6.1.8 Electrical Resistance Heating
- •6.1.9 Alternatives to Heat
- •6.2 Low Temperature
- •6.2.1 TheDynamics of Cold in the Lab
- •6.2.2 Room Temperature Tap Water (=20°C)
- •6.2.8 Safety with Slush Baths
- •6.2.9 Containment of Cold Materials
- •6.2.10 Liquid (Cryogenic) Gas Tanks
- •7 Vacuum Systems
- •7.1 How to Destroy a Vacuum System
- •7.2.1 Preface
- •7.2.2 How to Use a Vacuum System
- •7.2.4 Pressure, Vacuum, and Force
- •7.2.5 Gases, Vapors, and the Gas Laws
- •7.2.6 Vapor Pressure
- •7.2.7 How to Make (and Maintain) a Vacuum
- •7.2.8 Gas Flow
- •7.2.9 Throughput and Pumping Speed
- •7.3 Pumps
- •7.3.1 The Purpose of Pumps
- •7.3.2 The Aspirator
- •7.3.3 Types and Features of Mechanical Pumps
- •7.3.4 Connection, Use, Maintenance, and Safety
- •7.3.5 Condensable Vapors
- •7.3.6 Traps for Pumps
- •7.3.7 Mechanical Pump Oils
- •7.3.8 The Various Mechanical Pump Oils
- •7.3.9 Storing Mechanical Pumps
- •7.3.11 Ultra-High Vacuum Levels Without Ultra-High
- •7.3.12 Diffusion Pumps
- •7.3.13 Attaching a Diffusion Pump to a Vacuum System
- •7.3.14 How to Use a Diffusion Pump
- •7.3.15 Diffusion Pump Limitations
- •7.3.17 Diffusion Pump Maintenance
- •7.3.18 Toepler Pumps
- •7.4 Traps
- •7.4.1 The Purpose and Functions of Traps
- •7.4.2 Types of Traps
- •7.4.3 Proper Use of Cold Traps
- •7.4.4 Maintenance of Cold Traps
- •7.4.5 Separation Traps
- •7.4.6 Liquid Traps
- •7.5 Vacuum Gauges
- •7.5.2 The Mechanical Gauge Family
- •7.5.4 The Liquid Gauge Family
- •7.5.5 The Manometer
- •7.5.6 The McLeod Gauge
- •7.5.7 How to Read a McLeod Gauge
- •7.5.8 Bringing a McLeod Gauge to Vacuum Conditions
- •7.5.10 The Tipping McLeod Gauge
- •7.5.11 Condensable Vapors and the McLeod Gauge
- •7.5.12 Mercury Contamination from McLeod Gauges
- •7.5.13 Cleaning a McLeod Gauge
- •7.5.14 Thermocouple and Pirani Gauges
- •7.5.15 The Pirani Gauge
- •7.5.16 Cleaning Pirani Gauges
- •7.5.17 The Thermocouple Gauge
- •7.5.18 Cleaning Thermocouple Gauges
- •7.5.19 The lonization Gauge Family
- •7.5.20 The Hot-Cathode Ion Gauge
- •7.5.21 Cleaning Hot-Cathode Ion Gauges
- •7.5.24 The Momentum Transfer Gauge (MTG)
- •7.6 Leak Detection and Location
- •7.6.1 AllAbout Leaks
- •7.6.3 False Leaks
- •7.6.4 Real Leaks
- •7.6.5 Isolation to Find Leaks
- •7.6.6 Probe Gases and Liquids
- •7.6.7 The Tesla Coil
- •7.6.8 Soap Bubbles
- •7.6.9 Pirani or Thermocouple Gauges
- •7.6.10 Helium Leak Detection
- •7.6.11 Helium Leak Detection Techniques
- •7.6.13 Repairing Leaks
- •7.7 More Vacuum System Information
- •7.7.1 The Designs of Things
- •8 The Gas-Oxygen Torch
- •8.1.2 How to Light a Gas-Oxygen Torch
- •8.1.3 How to Prevent a Premix Torch from Popping
- •8.2.2 How to Tip-Off a Sample
- •8.2.3 How to Fire-Polish the End of a Glass Tube
- •8.2.4 Brazing and Silver Soldering
- •Appendix
- •A.2 Suggestions for Glassware Requests
- •B.1 Introduction
- •B.2 Polyolefins
- •B.3 Engineering Resins
- •B.4 Fluorocarbons
- •B.5 Chemical Resistance Chart
- •C.1 Chapter 1
- •C.4 Chapter 4
- •C.5 Chapter 5 & Chapter 6
- •C.6 Chapter 7
- •C.7 Chapter 8
- •D.1 Laboratory Safety
- •D.2 Chemical Safety
- •D.3 Chapter 1
- •D.4 Chapter 2
- •D.5 Chapter 3
- •D.6 Chapter 4
- •D.7 Chapter 5 and the Second Half of Chapter 6
- •D.8 Chapter 7
- •D.9 Chapter 8
- •Index
Appendix |
509 |
C.5 Chapter 5 & Chapter 6
Because companies that supply compressed gasses also commonly supply cryogenic materials, I've combined these two chapters' sources.
Air Products and Chemicals |
Compressed Gas Association, Inc. |
7201 Hamilton Blvd. |
1725 Jefferson Davis Highway, Suite 1004 |
Allentown PA 18195-9979 |
Arlington, VA 22202-4102 |
(800) 224-2724 |
(703) 412-0900 |
MVE |
Matheson Gas Products |
2 Appletree Sq. |
932 Paterson Plank Road |
8011 34th Ave. South #100 |
P.O. Box 85 |
Bloomington MN 55425 |
East Rutherford, NJ 07073 |
1-800-241-7452 |
(201) 933-2400 |
C.6 Chapter 7
There are many companies that make equipment for vacuum systems, and most of them can provide a full range of materials from pumps to oils, and from gauges to leak detection equipment. Most of these vacuum systems and components are for metal systems. For glass components, such as vacuum stopcocks, joints, and even glass diffusion pumps, see the suppliers listed for Chapter 3.
CTI-Cryogenics |
Edwards High Vacuum, Inc. |
Helix Technology Corporation |
301 Ballardvale St. |
266 Second Ave. |
Wilmington MA 01887 |
Waltham, MA 02254-9171 |
1-800- 848-9800 |
1-800-622-5400 |
http://www.edwards.boc.com/ |
Granville-Phillips |
High Vacuum Apparatus Mfg. Inc. |
5675 E. Arapahoe |
1763 Sabre St. |
Boulder, CO 80303-1398 |
Hayward, CA 94545 |
(303) 443-7660 |
(510) 785-2744 |
1-800-776-6543 |
|
http://www.granville.com/ |
|
Kurt J. Lesker Company
1515 Worthington Avenue
Clairton, PA 15025
1-800- 245-1656
http://www.lesker.com/
Larson Electronic Glass
2840 Bay Road
P.O. Box 371
Redwood City, CA 94064
(415) 369-6734
510 |
Manufacturers |
Leybold Vacuum Products Inc. |
McMaster-Carr Supply Company |
5700 Mellon Road |
P.O. Box 54960 |
Export, PA 15632 |
Los Angeles, CA 90054 |
(412) 327-5700 |
213)692-5911 |
http://www.leybold.com |
|
MDC Vacuum Products Corporation |
Physical Electronics, Inc. |
23842 Cabot Boulevard |
6509 Flying Cloud Dr. |
Hayward, Ca. 94545-1651 |
Eden Prairie, MN 55344 |
(510) 265-3500 (CA) |
(612) 828-6157 (in MN) |
1-800-443-8817 |
1-800- 237-3603 (outside MN) |
Televac |
Thermionics Laboratory, Inc. |
P.O. Box 67 |
22815 Sutro St. |
Huntingdon Valley, PA 19006 |
Hayward, CA 94541 |
(215) 938-4444 |
(510) 538-3304 |
|
http://www.thermionics.com/ |
Varian |
Willson Scientific Glass, Inc. |
Vacuum Products Division |
528 E. Fig Street |
121HartwellAve. |
Monrovia, CA 91016 |
Lexington, MA 02173 |
(818)303-1656 |
(617) 861-7200 |
|
1-800- 882-7426 |
|
http://www.varian.com/inst/vacuum/vac- |
|
uum.htm |
|
C.7 Chapter 8
Bethlehem Apparatus Company, Inc. |
Heathway |
Front & Depot Streets |
4030 C Skyron Dr. |
Hellertown, PA 18055 |
DoylestownPA 18901 |
(215) 838-7034 |
(215) 348-2881 |
|
(800)443-5128 |
Litton Engineering |
M-Tech Industries |
P.O.Box 950 |
P.O. Box 1358 |
Grass Valley, CA 95945 |
Cedar Ridge CA 95924-1358 |
(916) 273-6176 |
(916) 269-2137 |
(800)821-8866 |
http://www.littontech.com/mtech.html |
http://www.littontech.com/littonpage.html |
|
Wale Apparatus Company |
Wilt Glass Shop Equipment |
400 Front Street |
Route 8 |
P.O. Box D |
Lake Pleasant, NY 12108 |
Hellertown, PA18055 |
(518) 548-4961 |
Telephone: (215) 838-7047 |
1-800-232-WILT (9458) |
(800) 444-9253 |
|
Appendix |
511 |
Appendix D
Recommended Reading
Because this book tries to fill so many shoes, it cannot do justice to all subjects. Because of this limitation, some readers may wish to examine other, more specialized books to provide more depth in a given subject. A number of the books listed in this appendix can be found in the citations of their respective chapters. However, not all of the texts listed in this appendix gave me citable material. This appendix therefore provides me with the opportunity of directing your attention to other fine sources of information. Regrettably, not all of these books are still in print and must be searched for in libraries.
D.1 Laboratory Safety
Although I have tried to provide proper safety information throughout this book, safety is one area that cannot be covered thoroughly enough. The American Chemical Society recognizes this problem and has assembled a wonderful booklet on safety. Stricoff and Walters also have an excellent book.
SAFETY in Academic Chemistry Laborato-
ries, ©I990 by the American Chemical
Society, Washington, D.C.
Laboratory health and Safety Handbook by R.S. Stricoff and D.B. Walters Wiley-Interscience Publication, New York, NY, 1990
This excellent booklet on safety is available from the American Chemical Society. To obtain a copy, call 1-800- 227-5558 and ask Sales and Distribution for further information.
Detailed book that covers all aspects of laboratory safety from design to use.
D.2 Chemical Safety
Another aspect of safety is the handling and disposal of toxic, poisonous, hazardous, and dangerous materials. However, the number of chemicals used in the laboratory are so vast that any attempt of my selecting chemicals or abbreviating information could create a potential hazard. Three excellent books on this subject are:
512 Recommended Reading
information could create a potential hazard. Three excellent books on this subject are:
A Comprehensive Guide to the Hazardous |
Dangerous Properties of Industrial Materials, |
Properties of Chemical Substances |
6th ed., by N. Irving Sax |
by P. Patnaik |
Van Nostrand Reinhold Co., Inc., New |
Van Nostrand Reinhold Co., Inc., New |
York, © 1984. |
York, N.Y.,© 1992. |
|
Prudent Practices for Handling Hazardous |
Safe Storage of Laboratory Chemicals |
Chemicals in the Laboratory |
edited by David A. Pipitone |
by the Committee on Hazardous Sub- |
John Wiley & Sons, New York, © 1984. |
stances in the Laboratory |
|
National Academy Press, Washington |
|
D.C., © 1983. |
|
D.3 Chapter 1
Glass Engineering Handbook, 3rd ed., by G.W. McLellan and E.B. Shand,
McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc. New York, ©1984.
Handbook of Materials and Techniques for Vacuum Devices
by W.H. Kohl, © 1967 by Van Nostrand Reinhold, reprinted by the American Institute of Physics, 1995.
The Physical Properties of Glass
D.C. Holloway, Wykeham Publications,
London G.B., L D ©1973..
The Physical Properties of Glass Surfaces by L. Holland, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, © 1964.
For many years this has been a definitive source for glass information.
This book has excellent information on glass, ceramics, metals, and many other materials, as well as information on how they relate to vacuum environments.
Although good on many levels, this book has an excellent treatment of glass fracture.
A very intensive examination of all aspects of glass surfaces, from damage to cleaning to chemistry.
D.4 Chapter 2
Volumetric Glassware,
by V. Stott, Northumberland Press Ltd.,
Newcastle-on Tyne, G.B., © 1928, H. F. &
G. Witherby, London.
Although somewhat dated, this text contains very interesting information on volumetric ware.