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Caucasian mountain jews: positively shaping Russia-Azerbaijan relations and contributing towards regional peace
Mountain Jews have endured many hardships throughout history.
For example, in the early 17th century, a dispute between Sheikh-AliKhan, who pledged allegiance to the Russian Empire, and Surkhai-Khan,
the ruler of Kumukh, resulted in the destruction of communities like the
Jewish Valley.
1
In addition, Mountain Jews suffered persecution during
the Holocaust, with the German Wehrmacht murdering hundreds of
them.2 Nevertheless, their adaptation and resiliency allowed them to
maintain their religious customs and cultural legacy.
In modern times, Mountain Jews are still widely dispersed
throughout nations such as Azerbaijan, where their community greatly
centers in the town of Qırmızı Qəsɞbə in Russian is called Yevreiskaya
Sloboda (Jewish Town), dubbed the “Jerusalem of the Caucasus”.
Furthermore, Mountain Jews have created communities in far-off places
like Austria and the US,3 as well as in adjacent countries like Iran, all
while preserving their religious and cultural traditions. Even though
a large number of them have moved to metropolitan areas, efforts
to promote educational and cultural institutions, preserve religious
customs, and revitalize Judeo-Tat language and literature have helped to
preserve their cultural inheritance.
4
Stories of Persian-Jewish troops stationed in the Caucasus to guard
against nomadic invasions provide further evidence of the historical
1
Khodarkovsky, M. (1999). Of christianity, enlightenment, and colonialism: Russia in
the North Caucasus, 1550–1800. The Journal of Modern History, 71(2), 394–430.
2
Feferman, K. (2007). Nazi Germany and the Mountain Jews: Was There a Policy?
Holocaust and Genocide Studies, 21(1), 96–114.
3
Weißenberg, (1909). Die kaukasischen Juden. Archiv für Anthropologie, Neue Folge,
8, 237–245.
Borjian, H. & Kaufman, D. (2016). Juhuri: from the Caucasus to New York
City, Special Issue: Middle Eastern Languages in Diasporic USA communities.
International Journal of Sociology of Language, Maryam Borjian, M. & Häberl, C.
(Eds), 237, 51–74.
4
Penkowska, K. M. (2022). The Linguistic Diversity of Mountain Jews in Azerbaijan.
The Judeo–Tat Language in the Regional Linguistic Context. Cognitive Studies|
Études cognitives, (22), 1–6.
Also see: Wood, G. (2016). Lachič,skryté dědictví Ázerbájdžánu. Doctoral thesis.
http://www.nusl.cz/ntk/nusl-347506.
221
ГЛАВА 10
relevance of the Mountain Jews’ military legacy.1 Their historical
narrative and collective memory have been shaped by this history of
bravery and resiliency, which has become an essential component of
their cultural identity. This has continued to shape their viewpoints on
peace and the resolution of conflicts, both locally and regionally.
Exploring Historical Significance and Cultural Richness
The Mountain Jews have a long history in the Caucasus, especially
in the Russian regions of Dagestan, Kaitag, and Magaramkend, as well
as in the Azerbaijani settlements of Vartashen and Qirmizi Qasaba
(Krasnaya Sloboda). They have carved themselves a unique cultural
niche within the larger Jewish diaspora as artisans, educators, and
thinkers, greatly enhancing the cultural vibrancy of the area.2 Their
customs, which include growing grapes, making wine, and creating
one-of-a-kind handmade crafts (such as intricate pottery or elaborate
textiles), have sustained their culture in addition to providing them
with food. Furthermore, their long-standing customs–from folklore and
traditional music to the Hebrew-Tat language–underline their historical
significance in bridging disparate civilizations and enhance the current
cultural landscape while acting as a live link to the historic Silk Road.
3
1
Grebennikov, M. (2015). The Mountain Jews in Post-Soviet Caucasus:
Reconstructing Ethnic Identification and Political Orientation. Journal of Political
Sciences & Public Affairs, 3(2), 1–7.
2
Renowned artisans like David Sasson and Miriam Ben-Harosh are known for
intricate pottery designs, while educators such as Yitzhak Sasson and Rachel
Cohen have preserved Hebrew-Tat language and cultural traditions. Thinkers like
Rabbi Moshe Alshich and Dr. Esther Miriam have enriched intellectual discourse
in theology, philosophy, and history. These contributions highlight the cultural and
intellectual richness of the Mountain Jewish community in the Caucasus.
Miḳdash-Shemaʻʼilov, L. (2002). Mountain Jews: customs and daily life in the
Caucasus, 474. UPNE.
Also see: Huseynov, R. (2023). Jews in Azerbaijan. Focusing on Azerbaijan: https://
irs-az. com/new/pdf/201301/1358925519192785192. pdf.
3
The Caucasus region was an important route for the Great Silk Route throughout
the Middle Ages, and Jewish traders used it to organize caravans from China, where
Jewish trading posts were established. Id at Huseynov, R. (2023).
222
Caucasian mountain jews: positively shaping Russia-Azerbaijan relations and contributing towards regional peace
An increasing worldwide interest in conserving the distinctive
history and customs of the Mountain Jews has spurred recent initiatives
to digitize and archive their rich cultural heritage. The Mountain
Jewish community in Azerbaijan has been advancing accessibility and
understanding of their cultural past and current activities by operating
their own website, mountain.jewish.az, in the Russian language and by
keeping an extensive database.
1
Furthermore, by demonstrating the ways in which minority groups
can enrich and influence the dominant cultures in their surrounds,
the Mountain Jews’ absorption of local Caucasian elements into their
culture–particularly in music and cuisine–has sparked interest in crosscultural studies.2 For instance, their adaptation of traditional Caucasian
dishes like dolma, a dish consisting of grape leaves stuffed with a
mixture of rice, meat, and spices, showcases their ability to blend local
flavors with their own culinary traditions. In addition to preserving
their centuries-old heritage, this intercultural dialogue helps the various
ethnic groups in the Caucasus region comprehend and value one another
3
better.
Examining Economic Foundations and Modern Implications
The Mountain Jews, who were traditionally skilled in trade and
commerce, created strong economic connections throughout the
Caucasus. Mountain Jews of Derbent were well known for their skill in
the 19th century in the manufacturing and trade of silk, which not only
helped them prosper locally but also let them connect to bigger markets
via the Silk Road.
During the Soviet era, the Mountain Jews played a key role in the
development of the tea industry, particularly in areas like Azerbaijan
1
Didavari, R. (June 2013). Mountain Jews Thriving in Azerbaijan. Society. Visions of
Azerbaijan. http://www.visions.az/en/news/486/c4ce2b43/
2
Ibid., 9.
3
Council of Europe (2010). Intercultural dialogue as a basis for peace and
sustainable development in Europe and its neighbouring regions. Conference
of Ministers responsible for Culture. Baku, 2–3 December 2008. https://rm.coe.
int/16806b0157.
223
ГЛАВА 10
and Dagestan.1 For example, they were instrumental in establishing
cooperatives for tea cultivation and processing, contributing to the
growth of brands like “Azerbaijan Chay” and “Dagestan Tea,” which
became well-known for their quality and regional distinctiveness.
In the aftermath of the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict, the Mountain
Jews’ networks and entrepreneurial abilities can play a crucial role
in fostering economic cooperation and rebuilding areas devastated
by violence. Leveraging their ties to Azerbaijan and Russia, they can
promote collaborations and investments that support economic ties
within communities and contribute to restoration efforts.
In recent years, the community has been getting more active in
the technology and innovation sectors. This has given their traditional
economic strength a modern twist and opened up new opportunities
for inter-and intra-regional tech cooperation. Additionally, their
participation in sustainable development initiatives, such as
supporting environmentally friendly travel, is in line with international
environmental goals and offers a blueprint for environmentally friendly
economic growth in the Caucasus.
Eco-friendly excursions in Qirmizi Qasaba (Krasnaya Sloboda), the
largest Jewish town outside of Israel, are one example of an initiative that
advances the local environment and fosters cultural interchange while
maintaining the natural and cultural integrity of the area. This approach
to promoting tourism combines economic growth with environmental
1
“In August 1898, during the Second Zionist Congress in Basle, Switzerland, the
expanded Russian delegation, which included sizeable Caucasian Mountain Jews,
reflected their involvement in various trades, including tea business that was
popular in Russia at that time.”
Sachar, H. M. (2007). A history of Israel: From the rise of Zionism to our time. Knopf.
While the following source does not mention any specific tea company or tea
business associated with the Mountain Jews of Azerbaijan, it highlights the
community’s economic success, with some members becoming wealthy oligarchs
in the former Soviet Union.
Judah, J. (2019). Oligarchs and Torahs: This Wealthy Azerbaijan Town Is 100%
Jewish – but Its Community Is Dying. Haaretz. https://www.haaretz.com/world-news/
asia-and-australia/2019-11-20/ty-article/.premium/oligarchs-and-torah-arks-this-
wealthy-azerbaijan-town-is-100-jewish/0000017f-e847-df2c-a1ff-fe5710790000.
224
Caucasian mountain jews: positively shaping Russia-Azerbaijan relations and contributing towards regional peace
Red Town, (Qırmızı Qəsəbə), the most significant Mountain Jewish community
in the former Soviet Union, sits along the Kudyal River near Quba
and stands as the last remaining shtetl (Photo Courtesy: Advantour)
protection and cultural preservation, which is an excellent example of
dedication to sustainability.
The Nagorno-Karabakh Conflict and the Role of the Mountain Jews
The 2020 Nagorno-Karabakh war (or the ‘Second NagornoKarabakh War’ as is popularly called), a six-week war between Armenia
and Azerbaijan, significantly altered the South Caucasus’ geopolitical
landscape. Mediated by Russia, the conflict concluded with a ceasefire
agreement in November 2020. The agreement resulted in Armenia
ceding territory to Azerbaijan and tragically, significant casualties on
both sides.1 There is no single, globally accepted figure about Armenia’s
loss of land. However, according to some accounts, Armenia initially
1
Human Rights Watch. (2020, October 23). Cluster Munitions Used in Nagorno-
Karabakh. Azerbaijan. https://www.hrw.org/news/2020/10/23/azerbaijancluster-munitions-used-nagorno-karabakh#:~:text=Azerbaijan%20has%20
repeatedly%20used%20widely,which%20Azerbaijan%20used%20cluster%20munitions.
225
ГЛАВА 10
gave up almost two-thirds of the disputed region.1 Some recent reports
indicate that Armenia is now again attempting to retake some parts in
defiance of the ceasefire in place.
2
This highlight how important it is to
have a positive conversation and use grassroots mediation to support
long-term stability in the conflicting region.
Throughout the most recent Nagorno-Karabakh conflict, the
Mountain Jewish community was instrumental in preserving interethnic
harmony and promoting societal communication. They remained
impartial and engaged in humanitarian and peacemaking efforts to
alleviate the suffering among the war-affected communities.3 This
1
“Yerevan was forced to relinquish around a third of Nagorno-Karabakh in addition
to seven Azerbaijani regions it had controlled since the first war over the enclave
in the early 1990s.”
Mutch, T. (2021). Nagorno-Karabakh Is Moscow’s Latest Frozen Conflict. Foreign
Policy. https://foreignpolicy.com/2021/05/20/nagorno-karabakh-russia-armeniaazerbaijan-peacekeepers-frozen-conflict-zone/
“The sides reached an agreement in which Azerbaijan gained control over two-
thirds of Nagorno-Karabakh, and Russia deployed its peacekeeping forces in the
remaining third.”
Beliakova, P. (2022). How a Russian-Led Alliance Keeps a Lid on Central Asia. War
on the Rocks. https://warontherocks.com/2022/02/how-a-russian-led-alliancekeeps-a-lid-on-central-asia/
2
Azerbaijan State News Agency. (2021, August 25). Armenia’s belligerent actions and
truce violations to threaten regional stability. https://azertag.az/en/xeber/armenias_
belligerent_actions_and_truce_violations_to_threaten_regional_stability-1860949.
Also see: Reuters. (2022, September 23). Armenia and Azerbaijan accuse each other
of breaking ceasefire pact. https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/armenia-saysazerbaijan-broke-ceasefire-pact-2022-09-23/
3
On February 22, 2022, marking the 30th anniversary of the Khojaly genocide,
religious leaders in Azerbaijan, including representative heads from the Mountain
Jews community, called on the international community to recognize this genocide.
They advocated for an end to all military aggression, war rhetoric, and ethnic
intolerance, emphasizing the importance of promoting peace, neighborly relations,
and reconciliation among nations and peoples viz. Armenia. Their appeal reached
out to global religious figures, international organizations, parliaments, and the
Armenian Apostolic Church, urging collective action towards these noble goals.
Heads of religious confessions in Azerbaijan appeal to international community on
Khojaly genocide. (February 22, 2022). Tragedy of the 20th century – Khojaly genocide.
226
Caucasian mountain jews: positively shaping Russia-Azerbaijan relations and contributing towards regional peace
neutral stance reflects their historical consistency in avoiding ethnic
mobilization in regional politics, regardless of their official (or unofficial)
status within any given political regime.
1
They firmly held on to this
position, despite the complexity of the crisis and their longstanding
lingua-cultural ties to Armenia.
2
Furthermore, being respected members of both Russian and
Azerbaijani society, their presence served as a bridge for exchanging
information and building trust during the heated times. This played
a role in partially reducing tensions during the conflict, and they
subsequently became involved in on-the-ground Track-II initiatives
aimed at fostering reconciliation among the affected populations.
From a strategic standpoint, the extensive political and economic
network of the Mountain Jews in both Azerbaijan and Russia could play
a key role in enabling back-channel diplomacy and reducing tensions in
the region, should an unforeseen situation arise in the foreseeable future.
Due to their unique position, they can also take advantage of possibilities
Administrative Department of the President of the Republic of Azerbaijan Presidential
Library, 113–115. https://files.preslib.az/projects/khojali/enkhojali/gl2.pdf.
1
“Unlike other ethnic groups, no community of Mountain Jews in the Caucasus has
ever mobilized politically to get official acknowledgment on the basis of its ethic
and religious identity. ...They have never relinquished their national identity and
ethno-cultural affiliation with their brethren beyond the Caucasian mountains. Nor
have they ever abandoned the Jewish faith.”
Grebennikov, M. (2015). The mountain Jews in post-soviet caucasus: Reconstructing
ethnic identification and political orientation. Journal of Political Sciences & Public
Affairs, 3(2), 1–7.
2
V. F. Miller carefully examines the connection between the Tat language as spoken
by Mountain Jews and its usage among Muslims and Armenians.
Miller, B. (1929). Taty, ikh rasselenie i govory. Izvestiia obshchestva izucheniia
Azerbaidzhana obsledovaniia, 8(7), Baku.
Also see: “In the USSR today the term Tat means Mountain Jew since in their identity
papers the Moslem Tats are entered as Azer baydzhanis and the Christian Tats as
Armenians.’…”There are also Tat-speaking Muslims and Gregorian Christians in
the USSR; however, their written languages are Azerbaydzhani and Armenian
respectively and they assimilate speedily with the Azerbaydzhanis and Armenians.”
Soviet statement on the mountain Jews: Introduced and annotated by Lukasz
Hirszowicz. (1986). Soviet Jewish Affairs, 16(3), 55–60.
227
ГЛАВА 10
to start grassroots peacebuilding initiatives, which are essential for
maintaining long-term stability and creating an environment that is
favorable for fruitful, high-level political discourse in the Caucasus. By
combining formal diplomatic efforts with this grassroots approach, a
multifaceted plan for long-term peace in the region can be established.
In light of these factors, harnessing the potential of the Mountain Jews
as cultural mediators and peace ambassadors could open the door to longterm coexistence and peace in the Greater Caucasus, which includes both the
South and the North Caucasus. Building a more inclusive and harmonious
future for the region requires their invaluable partnerships, which are
rooted in their experiences, resiliency, and dedication to communication.
Connecting National Cultural Diplomacy to Local Peacebuilding
Following the Second Nagorno-Karabakh War and the ensuing war
right at the doors of Russia, cultural diplomacy becomes an essential tool
for promoting peace, with the Mountain Jews potentially serving as a key
player in this regional peacebuilding process. Russia’s efforts to save and
promote their heritage sites and customs demonstrate the country’s, in
particular the Putin administration’s, dedication to safeguarding the
variety and richness of the Caucasus.
1
Such initiatives pursued by Russia,
1
On October 9th, 2018, at the Moscow Government building, the WCMJ, in
collaboration with the Federation of Sephardic Jews Communities, presented
the book “Mountain Jews.” The monograph delves into the traditional and
contemporary culture of Mountain Jews, exploring their ethnogenesis and the
roles of modern Mountain-Jewish groups worldwide.
World Congress of Mountain Jews. (n.d.). Home. https://wcmj.org/en/
Also see: A community center was opened in Moscow’s Sokolniki district in
December 2019, marking a pivotal moment for the Mountain Jews’ community. This
center, designed to engage youth and preserve the community’s cultural heritage,
was inaugurated during a ceremony attended by notable figures including Chief
Rabbi of Russia Berl Lazar, representatives from the Kremlin, Ministry of Education,
City Hall, and the Israeli Embassy. The ceremony also saw Chairman of the Council
of the European Rabbis and Chief Rabbi of Moscow Pinchas Goldschmidt lighting
the Hanukkah candles, adding significance to the occasion.
Arutz Sheva Staff. (2020, January 5). First of its kind project by Mountain Jews’
Association. Arutz Sheva. https://www.israelnationalnews.com/news/274104.
228
Caucasian mountain jews: positively shaping Russia-Azerbaijan relations and contributing towards regional peace
including promoting the Juhuri language and preserving traditional
Mountain Jewish festivals like the Krasnaya Sloboda Wine Festival
(which celebrates the unique winemaking traditions of the Mountain
Jewish community in Krasnaya Sloboda, Azerbaijan), strengthen Russia’s
standing as an inclusive nation among other ethnic groups.
Meanwhile, Azerbaijan has shown its dedication to pluralism
with concrete steps such as the restoration of Baku’s ‘Mountain
Jewish Synagogue’,
1
which serves as a venue for community meetings,
educational activities, and cultural events. This socio-religious initiative
promotes a sense of identification and belonging among community
members by showcasing the rich heritage and customs of the Mountain
Jews. Azerbaijan is also actively working on building a new ‘Jewish
Religious and Cultural Center’ in Baku, expected to be finished by the
end of 2024.2 This initiative highlights the country’s admiration and
support for the ethno-religious minority group.
Beyond merely preserving culture, Russia and Azerbaijan’s bilateral
assistance for the Mountain Jews community represents a calculated
step in the direction of achieving regional stability and global diplomacy.
Both countries offer a perfect example of minority inclusion and
cooperation by highlighting the distinctive cultural legacy and economic
contributions of this community that in the past remained politically
overlooked. This strategy offers a narrative of harmony and inclusivity,
countering the region’s frequently contentious ethnic dynamics. These
initiatives benefit the Mountain Jews as well as Russia and Azerbaijan’s
1
Barouk, I. (2023, August 10). Architecture of Peace and Progress: A new Jewish
Cultural Center in a Majority-Muslim Nation. Jewish Journal. https://jewishjournal.
com/commentary/blogs/bits-of-insight-and-pieces-of-hope/361431/architectureof-peace-and-progress-a-new-jewish-cultural-center-in-a-majority-muslim-nation/
2
The presently under-construction center plans to include spaces for educational
programs on Jewish culture and history, classes in Hebrew and Juhuri (the
Mountain Jewish language), and potentially a kosher restaurant.
A Jewish center is being built in the capital of Azerbaijan and the Congress of
Rabbis of Europe will be held here. (2023, August 4). TURRAN. https://turan.az/
en/social/a-jewish-center-is-being-built-in-the-capital-of-azerbaijan-and-thecongress-of-rabbis-of-europe-will-be-held-here-768078.
229
ГЛАВА 10
international reputation as countries that value ethnic variety and
cultural tolerance.
The preservation of their traditions and language, joint educational
initiatives, and cultural festivals like “Ovshori,” a traditional Mountain
Jewish dance with Persian and Azerbaijani musical influences, can all
help the community play a crucial role in promoting mutual respect and
shared history between Russians, Azerbaijanis, and Armenians, which
will ultimately contribute significantly to the stability and peace of the
region.
Going forward, the challenge for Russia and Azerbaijan is to respect
the distinct cultural identity of the Mountain Jews while attempting to
integrate them more fully into the socio-political fabric of their respective
nations. Along with maintaining cultural legacy, this integration entails
making sure that Mountain Jews are equally represented in politics,
the corporate world, and the educational system. In order to ensure
that the Mountain Jews can fully engage in contemporary society while
maintaining their unique cultural customs, overcoming these problems
will require striking a fine balance between modernization and tradition.
By addressing these challenges, Azerbaijan and Russia have the
potential to establish a model for integrating minority groups, not
just Mountain Jews but also other ethno-linguistic or ethno-religious
1
communities, into their broader national stories.
This successful
integration could promote a sense of national unity that celebrates
diversity and peace alike.
The Fair Proposed Way Ahead
The fair proposed way ahead involves a balanced approach
that unites theoretical concepts with real-world applications,
emphasizing case studies and analogies to past occurrences. A thorough
comprehension of the theoretical foundations of minority integration
1
Smith’s work provides theoretical insights into the dynamics of nations and
nationalism in the context of globalization, offering valuable perspectives on how
minority integration contributes to national unity and peacebuilding efforts.
Smith, A. (2013). Nations and nationalism in a global era. John Wiley & Sons.
230
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