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Файл:Ординатура / Хирургия / Библиотека им академика М.И. Перельмана / Книга_5442_Библиотеки_им_академика_М_И_Перельмана.pdf
various mechanisms by which mycobacteria form biofilms thus decreasing the overall
biofilm biom ass (
Jiang et al., 2019).
Although the inhibition of new biofilm formation is imperative, another impor tant
component of mycobacterial biofilm clearance is the ability to eliminate preexisting bio-
films and biofilms that have matured prior to drug administration. The elimination of
persistent bacterial populations is a known limitation of conventional antibiotic therapies
(
Jiang et al., 2019). Biofilm dispersal restores the susceptibility of TB bacilli to antibiotic
treatment due to their resultant exposure to the unprotected environment outside the bio-
film. In the study by
Jiang et al. (2019), at a concentration of 8 μg/mL, compound 1 was
able to disperse preformed biofilms (
Jiang et al., 2019). The reason for the higher conce n-
tration of compound 1 required is due to the increased difficulty of dispersing biofilms
when compared to inhibiting their formation (
Jiang et al., 2019). Syner gistic antibiotic
activity and further disruption of mature biofilm architecture occurred using compound 1
at a concentration of 32 μg/mL. The disruption of the physically and chemically protec-
tive m atrix allows conventional antibiotics to exert their full effect and results in the dra-
matic shortening of antibiotic therapy as TB bacilli are in an exposed planktonic state
(
Jiang et al., 2019). Mycobacterial biofil m disturbance is illustrated in Fig. 9.6,usingno
drug treatment as a negative control (A) and compound 1 as the test molecule (B)
Jiang
et al. (2019)
.
The limitations of using Mtb in an in vitro biofilm model are mainly related to the time
taken for Mtb, biofilm formation. The above study highlighted that although scientifically
significant results were generated, Mtb, biofilms took over a month to grow and testing
could only begin 35 days postinoculation (
Jiang et al., 2019). In an attempt to overcome this,
other studies have focused on using Mycobacterium smegmatis as an alternative mycobacterial
biofilm model due to its relative ease and rapidity of growth in vitro (
Bonkat et al., 2012;
Oosthuizen, Gasa, Hamilton, & Lall, 2019). In a study by Oosthuizen et al. (2019),
FIGURE 9.6 Scanning electron microscopy images of Mtb. (A) Scanning electron microscopy image of a
mature Mtb, biofilm undisturbed with no drug treatment. Red arrows indicate TB bacilli physically embedded
and protected within the biofilm matrix. (B) Scanning electron microscopy image of a disrupted Mtb, biofilm.
Green arrows indicate exposed planktonic TB bacilli. Source: From Jiang, C.-H., Gan, M.-L., An, T.-T., & Yang, Z.-C.
(2019). Bioassay-guided isolation of a Mycobacterium tuberculosis bioflim inhibitor from Arisaema sinii Krause.
Microbial Pathogenesis, 126, 351356.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.micpath.2018.11.022.
324 9. Mycobacterial quorum quenching and biofilm inhibition potential of medicinal plants
Medicinal Plants as Anti-infectives
ethnobotanically selected medicinal plants were evaluated for their antimycobacterial bio-
film capabilities against M. smegmatis MC
2
155. Leonotis leonurus (L.) R. Br., Sphedamnocarpus
pruriens (A. Juss.) Szyszył, and Salvia africana-lutea L. showed the most significant biofilm
inhibitory capacity with EC
50
values of 50.2, 62.2, and 95.8 μg/mL, respectively.
Ciprofloxacin was the positive control utilized in this experiment. Although ciprofloxacin
had a relatively low EC
50
value of 1.98 μg/mL concerning biofilm formation inhibition, this
value was still higher than the MIC value observed in the antimycobacterial assay con-
ducted in the same study. This indicates that ciprofloxacin is more selective toward the inhi-
bition of mycobacterial cell growth than mycobacterial biofilm formation inhibition
(
Oosthuizen et al., 2019). Other plants utilized in this study such as Withania somnifera (L.)
Dunal showed far greater selectivity toward biofilm inhibition than antimycobacterial activ-
ity when compared to ciprofloxacin, with a selectivity index of 3.75.
Although it is often desirable to isolate phytochemicals with potent bioactivity, some-
times it may be necessary to enhance the bioactivity of these phytochemicals via derivati-
zation. Not only can derivatives be chemically synthesized to enhance such activity, but
they can also be designed to limit side effects that may be commonly experienced with the
base compound (
Junqueira et al., 2020). A study by Junqueira et al. (2020) serves as an
example of such a technique whereby the researchers isolated licarin A, a neolignan with
a dihydrobenzofuran structure from Aristolochia taliscana Hook. & Arn. and generated
seven additional derivatives from the base compound. They tested the activity of these
compounds, including licarin A, against mycobacterial biofilm formation, primarily using
Mycobacterium massiliense, Mycobacterium abs cessus, and Mycobacterium fortuitum as the test
organisms (
Junqueira et al., 2020). Licarin A is represented in Fig. 9.7.
The rationale behind the process of derivatization was to enhance the hydrophobicity of
licarin A, since mycobacteria are characteristically well-known for their ability to produce
an extensive concentration of mycolic acids, both in their cell wall as well as in the EPS of
mycobacterial biofilms (
Junqueira et al., 2020). By increasing the hydrophobicity of the
base compound, the researchers postulated that this modification would have an advanta-
geous effect with respect to the ability of the compound to penetrate the mycobacterial cell
wall. This was, however, found not to be the case. Instead, the presence of a polar group
FIGURE 9.7 The chemical structure of
licarin A.
325Medicinal plants and mycobacterial quorum quenching
Medicinal Plants as Anti-infectives
such as a hydroxyl group was shown to greatly increase the susceptibility of the mycobac-
teria to drug treatment (
Junqueira et al., 2020). The allylic alcohol, compound 9, was
shown to have the greatest inhibitory potential on mycobacterial biofilm formation with
minimum biofilm inhibitory concentration (MBIC) values of 2.44, 4.88, and 2.44 μg/mL
when tested on M. massiliense, M. fortuitum , and M. abscessus, respectively (
Junqueira et al.,
2020
). Licarin A was found to have MBIC values of 2.44, 9.76, and 9.76 μg/mL when tested
against the same species, respectively (
Junqueira et al., 2020). The limitations of this study
were primarily related to the fact that although the above-mentioned compounds were
capable of inhibiting biofilm formation, they were found to be relatively ineffective against
preexisting biofilms which substantially increases the possibility that another drug may
need to be added to achieve this effect. Nonetheless, the bioactive compound licarin A is
widely distributed in the plant kingdom and is even found in nutmeg (Myristica fragrans
Houtt.). Its presence in edible plant-based products is a significant advantage as indivi-
duals may receive a dual benefit of a food additive and an antimycobacterial compound
in one.
Phytochemicals used in bacterial quorum quenchi ng
The consumption of raw plant material is an impractical means of delivery of phyto-
derived medications as it requires the consumption of a large amount of material that
contains very little active constituent and is often unpalatable (
Hoffman, 2003). There
are thus several advantages in extracting bioactive metabolites from plants. First, the
extraction of medicinal compounds from plant material is beneficial as it allows the for-
mation of a more practical means of medication delivery. That being, a formulation
with concentrated volumes of the active constituent, requiring the consumption of
small volumes of plant-derived material w hich is in a far more palatable form
(
Hoffman, 2003).
In plant material, several constituents may interact with one another to produce physi-
cal, chemical, or therapeutic incompatibilities (
Essien, Young, & Baroutian, 2020).
Although this mainly applies to biochemically active compounds, sever al inert or unreac-
tive compounds may result in unwanted therapeutic effects such as decreased efficiency
of the therapeutic agent (
Hoffman, 2003). It can therefore be beneficial to separate inert
compounds from biologically active constituents through chromatography to allow the
biologically active compounds to exert their full effect. The isolation and purification of
pure compounds from vast amounts of raw material allow these compounds to be individ-
ually analyzed according to their physicochemical properties which subsequently deter-
mines thei r inclusion or exclusion in the final formulation to be administered
(
Essien et al., 2020).
Quorum sensing is an intricately regulated process that requires just as intricate quo-
rum quenching molecules. The isolation and purification of these molecules favor
selective interaction with the mechanism in question without the possibility of collat-
eral cellular damage. Several examples of pure compounds isolated from medicinal
plants with quorum quenching activity are illustrated in
Table 9.1.
326 9. Mycobacterial quorum quenching and biofilm inhibition potential of medicinal plants
Medicinal Plants as Anti-infectives
TABLE 9.1 Chemical structures of phytochemicals with potential usage in quorum quenching.
Phytochemical Microorganism tested Quorum quenching effect Structure Reference
β-sitosterol Listeria monocytogenes Disruption of cellular
aggregation and subsequent
biofilm formation
Nyila, Leonard,
Hussein, and Lall
(2012)
Citral Staphylococcus aureus Inhibition of autoinducer 2
activity
(Zhang et al.,
2014
)
Dihydroxybergamottin Escherichia coli Reduction in biofilm
formation and autoinducer 2
signaling
Cugini, Morales,
and Hogan (2010)
Malic acid Escherichia coli and
Salmonella typhimurium
Autoinducer 2 inhibition (Almasoud et al.,
2016
)
Naringin Yersinia enterocolitica Inhibition of biofilm
formation and acyl-
homoserine lactone synthesis
(Truchado et al.,
2012
)
(Continued)
TABLE 9.1 (Continued)
Phytochemical Microorganism tested Quorum quenching effect Structure Reference
Resveratrol Proteus mirabilis Reduction in swarming
motility and flagellin
production
(Wang et al.,
2006)
Salicylic acid Agrobacterium tumefaciens Modulation of 103 genes
involved in bacterial virulence
including acyl-homoserine
lactone inhibition
(Yuan et al., 2007)
Sesquiterpene lactones Pseudomonas aeruginosa Reduction in cell to cell
communication via acyl-
homoserine lactone inhibition
(Amaya et al.,
2012)
Taxifolin Pseudomonas aeruginosa Reduction in quorum sensing
regulated gene expression
(Vandeputte et al.,
2011
)
Zingerone Chromobacterium violaceum Inhibition of violacein and
pyocyanin production
Vijendra Kumar,
Murthy,
Manjunatha, and
Bettadaiah (2014)
Conclusion
TB, and the management thereof, remain a global health emergency considering over one-
quarter of the world’s population is infected with the dynamic pathogen, Mtb. Over the years
unprecedented attempts to control this pathogen and how it influences human populations
have been instituted; however, the efficiency of such treatment modalities has recently come
under much scrutiny. As a means of sheltering themselves from the external environment and
the various harmful substances that reside within, mycobacteria have devised a strategy to
encapsulate themselves within a prolific and dynamic extracellular matrix, a structure known as
a biofilm. This extracellular matrix not only serves as an effective mechanism to obtain and con-
centrate nutrients but furthermore, serves as an extensively resilient barrier to antimicrobial pen-
etration. The haphazard use of antibiotics coupled with poor healthcare practices has led to a
surge in antimicrobial resistance and has allowed the formation of resistant persisters which
have been implicated as culprits in the chronicity of latent TB infections. The clinical implications
of antimicrobial resistance are vast and devastating and have recently been shown to promote
the emergence of multidrug resistant and extensively drug-resistant TB. Conventional treatment
modalities and their mechanism of action primarily focus on their ability to inhibit the prolifera-
tion of planktonic cells with little scientific material available on the inhibition of populations of
planktonic cells encapsulated within biofilms. The regulation of virulence factor production and
biofilm formation and maturation lies in the quorum sensing cascade, an important target for
quorum quenching compounds. Selective pressure for bactericidal antibiotic resistance is mini-
mal when it comes to quorum quenching strategies as these novel agents do not result in bacte-
ricidal effects, but rather act via the attenuation of a host of mycobacterial virulence strategies.
Throughout history, plants have been employed as medicinal alternatives in the treatment of
infectious diseases. Several medicinal plants have been shown to possess highly bioactive sec-
ondary metabolites that function primarily as quorum sensing inhibitors. As an innovative treat-
ment adjuvant, medicinal plants and their metabolic pools hold great promise in the treatment
of infectious diseases such as TB. However, minimal research has been conducted in the field of
medicinal plants as quorum quenching agents, and thus advances in this field will likely yield a
myriad of novel compounds that can be used to combat the global TB epidemic and bring relief
for individuals and populations suffering from this illness .
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