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forms the most extensive and heaviest apparatus in the body as a whole. One square centime-
ter contains three blood vessels, 10 hairs, 12 nerves, 15 sebaceous glands, 100 sweat, and three
million cells. The medical formularies books reveal the methods of Arab physicians adopted
in the field of dermatology. This branch of learning falls into three categories. The first
includes skin diseases which are a branch of internal diseases, such as tumors, ulcers, pus-
tules, leprosy, and others. The second covers pure skin diseases such as vitiligo and others.
The third category covers diseases related to the skin appendages such as hair and nails, clas-
sified according to a special order called (al-Zina), that is, cosmetology.
Arab physicians investigated the nature of these diseases, their causes and effects, and
alluded to the fact that illnesses as such were affected by what was called the four com-
plexions or (humors) (al-akhlat). This theory was a common feature of the age.
The number of skin diseases listed in medical forms is large and probably covers all
skin conditions as they are described today (
ibn, al-Qars
ˇ
i
¯
, Ibn al-Nafi
¯
s, Chadli, & Hemrit,
2005; Bouamrane, 2010
)(Table 14.3).
The number of different internal and dermal diseases is large and reveals a particular
interest of physicians in skincare. They studied ulcers and diseases of the head, ears, nose,
mouth, lips, teeth, eyes, neck, lungs, heart, as well as on types of fevers, and epidemics.
Skin conditions can be classified into different categories: rashes, viral infections, bacte-
rial infections, fungal infections, parasitic infections, pigmentation disorders, tumors and
cancers, trauma, and other conditions such as wrinkles, rosacea, spider veins, and varicose
veins. Several herbal remedies possessed a wide range of dermatological effects, including
antibacterial, antifungal, antiviral, antiparasitic, anticancer, stimulating hair growth, heal-
ing wounds, and burns, for the treatment of eczema, acne, cancer, vitiligo, and psoriasis,
as a skin lightener, as a skin protection therapy, and to slow skin aging.
Parasitic diseases are one example that deserves attention. Ibn Zuhr as early as the 12th
century desc ribed hitherto unidentified skin diseases. In the first part of his work
(
Bouamrane, 2010), it is a question of ringworm, the parasitic etiology of which was of
course unknown at that time, but whose lesions were known since antiquity. Ibn Zuhr
also mentions in this same book tonsuring herpes (ophiasis), head lice, and their nits. He
also devotes an entire treatise to ocular affections (Treatise No. 8), it is very interesting to
see the phthiriasis of the eyelids cited, an infrequent localization of the pubic louse or
“crab louse” (Phiirius inguinalis).
Much work is devoted to parasitology. Chapters XXXII and XXXII I relate, respectively,
to animals that can enter the ear and leeches. In Treaty VII of Book II, Chapter XVIII is
devoted to a parasitic animalcule “assoab.” This is surely the scabies mite.
Plants and metals useful for skin diseases
Let us now turn to medicinal preparations and to plants and metals more specifically
used to treat skin diseases. In the Middle Eastern region, there are more than 2600 known
plant species; about 200250 of them are still in use for the treatment and prevention of
various diseases (
Snafi, 2018).
Some are specific to skin diseases, but what interests us here is the metalplant combi-
nations particularly used for certain ailments that we will identify.
464 14. The case of cutaneous infections’ remedies
Medicinal Plants as Anti-infectives
TABLE 14.3 Table of diseases listed in two medical treatises written by Ibn al-Nafis and by Ibn Zuhr.
Name Description
Acne
Erythrose facial
Ringworm
Ophiase Variety of alopecia areata in which the alopecic plaques form sinuosities and form a
bare crown around the skull
Baldness
Pustulose Skin disease characterized by the presence of pustules
Canities Physiological or pathological bleaching of hair
Capillary asymmetry
Pityriasis capitis Dandruff
Phthiriasis Lice
Nits
Accidental wounds
Tumors Swelling, growth of tissue
Ear ulcers
Nose ulcers
Polyps of the nose
Tongue affections Tumors, ulcers
Oral granulations
Lip cracks
Canker sores
Tongue cracks
Scabies, warts, scrofula
Chalazion
Blepharitis Trachoma, a nonspecific, contagious bacterial eye infection caused by chlamydia
trachomatis
Trichiasis Deviation of the implantation of the eyelashes toward the inside of the eye
Falling eyelashes
Eye’s phthiriasis Lice
Stye
Dacryocystitis Tumor between the inner corner of the eye and the nose
Tear duct disorders Enlarged or atrophy of the lacrimal caruncle
(Continued)
465Cutaneous infections and medications
Medicinal Plants as Anti-infectives
Therapeutics was classically subdivided into three parts, namely, pharmacology, dietet-
ics, and surgery. The first area was arguably of the greatest practical importance in medie-
val medicine. Pharmacology is further subdivided into two distinctly different parts: the
use of simple remedies on the one hand, and compounds on the other. These treatises on
TABLE 14.3 (Continued)
Name Description
Conjunctival pustules
and ulcers
Pupil disorders Deformation, dilatation
Conjunctivitis
Corneal pannus
Boils
Pruritic
Vitiligo
Leucodermia Refers to several skin diseases characterized by a lasting decrease or loss of
pigmentation
Nevi Congenital malformation of the skin visible as a colored patch or small tumor
Warts
Lichen
Peeling of the skin Exfoliation
Leprosy
Medina worm Parasite, worm
Cysticercosis Parasite, worm
Cracked feet and hands
Nail cracking
Pyoderma Purulent skin lesion resulting from infection
Pannus
Gale
Eczema
Papules et pustules
Abscess
Urticaria
Bruises
466 14. The case of cutaneous infections’ remedies
Medicinal Plants as Anti-infectives
pharmacology reveal the methods of Arab physicians adopted in the field of dermatology.
This branch of learning falls into three categories. Reading the pharmacy treatises, we see
that the use of metals as ingredients of drugs used to treat diseases is not uncommon. This
is due to the very early antibacterial properties observed when a metal is introduced into
a topical preparation such as cream, ointment, poultice, and so on. Minerals, for example,
those containing antimony, arsenic, copper, gold, iron, lead, mercury, sulfur, or zinc, were
used frequently.
One area of medicine where metals have been used frequently in the therapeutic com-
position is that of the treatment of diseases of the eye. There is a treatise on the eye written
by H
˙
unayn ibn Ish
˙
¯
aq in the 9th CE. This pupil of Yuh
˙
an
¯
a ibn M
¯
asawaih, originally from
al-Hira in Iraq, is best known for his translations of Greek works, especially medical texts
by Galen, towards Syriac, the language of culture of his religious community, and Arabic,
was a renowned doctor who left a hundred works including a set of 10 ophthalmology
treatises in which he describes in detail the ailments of the eye and the various ways of
treating them. The use of plantmetal combinations is frequent there. Among the drugs of
mineral origin G. A. Anawati has identified 16 which are listed below (
Anawati,
Me
´
dicaments, & L’Oeil, 1905
).
• al-sh
¯
ad
˙
ana, hematite
• al-milh
˙
, salt
• al-nush
¯
ad
˙
ir, ammoniac
• al-zarn
¯
ıkh, arsenic
• al-zinj
¯
ar, rust
• al-iql
¯
ımiyya, cadmie (calamine)
• al-bawraq, saltpeter
• al-z
¯
aj, white vitriol
• al-ras
˙
as
˙
, lead
• al-itmid, antimony
• al-qalqant, blue vitriol
• al-qalqad
¯
ıs, red vitriol
• al-nuh
˙
¯
as, copper
• al-isf
¯
ıd
¯
aj, lead carbonate
• al-t
¯
utya, zinc oxide
• t
¯
ub
¯
al al-h
˙
ad
¯
ıd, iron scoria
Medicines are of several kinds; in the first place the topicals directly applied to the skin,
they come in the form of balms, oils, ointments, and creams. They correspond to mixtures
with different concentrations of different natural compounds which can be either crushed
or ground. Several recipes for different diseases have been proposed. For example, in the
treatment of eczema, Ibn Sin
¯
a suggests the following formulation (
ibn, al-Qars
ˇ
i
¯
, Ibn al-
Nafi
¯
s, Chadli, & Hemrit, 2005
):
• Cover the lesion with a mixture of lentils, pomegranate peels, barley flour, planta, all finely
pounded. For miliary eczema, add a purgative and a little turbith and small moments. Fresh
milk is very effective, pomegranate peels, Armenian clay in vinegar, and rose water.
467Cutaneous infections and medications
Medicinal Plants as Anti-infectives
For pruritus and scabies, Ibn Sin
¯
a recommends a diet based on chicory, chard, purslane,
and spinach cooked with kid meat and pomegranate grains. For the topical to be applied
regularly in addition to the diet, here is the composition:
• You need sulfur, lily, soap, gum ammonia, gum ammonia. One of these products is mixed with
litharge or white lead and an equivalent amount of white salt and pomegranate seeds are added.
Grill everything and add rose oil, violet oil, rose water, green cilantro water, and vinegar.
Camphor can be used.
Of course, due to their antibacterial and antiinfectious properties, metal s are often
found in preparations that are used to treat skin diseases where there is presence of pus
such as abscesses and boils. We have noted a few examples of Al-Kind
¯
ı(
ibn, al-Qars
ˇ
i
¯
, Ibn
al-Nafi
¯
s, Chadli, & Hemrit, 2005
), a doctor who practiced in Baghdad during the 9th CE.
For a nasal ulcer:
• Two parts of scoria of gold, one part of Lycium juice, and one part of saffron.
• It is sieved with a silk cloth and taken nasally with dripping juice of garden cress. After this, it
is taken nasally (aspired) with good violet. It is very useful, with the leave of God.
For boils:
• It is tested and wonderful, one part of each.
• Long aristolochia.
• Electuary of plantain.
• Litharge (white lead).
• Scoria of silver.
• Aloe vera.
• Myrrh.
• They are pulverized with vinegar and rose oil. The boil is daubed with this mixture which
removes it in two or three applications, with God’s leave.
Drug for an abscess:
• It is powdered on; then natural cotton is placed on it. It clears away the defects, dries the flesh,
and heals the abscess. The mixture should be warm for effectiveness and contains
1
/
2 part of
verdigris and one part of each: Aloe, myrrh, gum ammoniac, frankincense, wild pomegranate
flower, and minium (red lead).
Toxicity of metals
Metals have often been associated with plants to combat symptoms reminiscent of
bacterial infections. They have been abandoned because of their toxicity, which is
poorly known and poorly controlled. In addition, certain unfortunate and inappropri-
ate use of metals has largely contributed to the current mistrust concerning their use in
medicine (
Bonah & du Stalinon, 2007; Mikulski et al., 2017; Parascandola, 2009; Riva,
Lafranconi, D’Orso, & Cesana, 2012
). Fur thermore, the presence of toxic metals in dif-
ferent traditional preparations, mainly due to the contamination of soils by these
468 14. The case of cutaneous infections’ remedies
Medicinal Plants as Anti-infectives
metals, and that lead to intoxications enhances even more the suspicion regarding
metals (i.e.,
Chen, Zou, Sun, Qin, & Yang, 2021; Ernst, 2002; Saper et al., 2008; Shaw,
Leon,Kolev,&Murray,1997
). Promoting their use from traditional medicines will thus
require addressing the toxicity issues of these metals/remedies.
The great difficulty in studying the toxicity of metals is that it is linked to a large num-
ber of mechanisms, based in particular on the competition that there may be between the
metals themselves for binding to proteins (many metals share similar structural and func-
tional properties), and to the generation of oxidative stress (
Lemire, Harrison, & Turner,
2013; Squibb & Fowler, 1981; Xianglin, Castranova, Vallyathan, & Perry, 2001
). This can
lead to the dysfunction of many enzymes, the generation of ROS, or a depletion of the
antioxidative potential, genotoxicity, odd membrane function, interference with the assimi-
lation of nutrients (
Egorova & Ananikov, 2017; Schatzschneider, 2018)(Fig. 14.2).
FIGURE 14.2 Metal toxicity on eukaryote cells. Over the past decades, many researches have been conducted
to elucidate the mechanisms of metal toxicity. While this toxicity remains metal-specific, some general trends are
observed, some of which are represented here. Metals can bind and so disturb the function of many proteins and
enzymes, they can affect membranes permeability/nutrient import, induce the formation of ROS, which in turn
will lead to molecule oxidation (proteins/nucleic acids/lipids). Metal can therefore affect major cellular function:
they can inhibit DNA/RNA synthesis and repair, reduce the level of ATP, affect the ratios NAD/NADH in the
mitochondria, disrupt proteins synthesis in the rough endoplasmic reticulum, decrease the level of cytochromes
P450 (hemoproteins involved in most of oxidoreduction reactions) in the smooth endoplasmic reticulum, compro-
mise detoxification mechanisms by accumulation in lysosome. See text for details. Source: From Lemire, Harrison,
& Turner, 2013; Squibb & Fowler, 1981; Xianglin, Castranova, Vallyathan, & Perry, 200; Egorova & Ananikov, 2017;
Schatzschneider, 2018. Servier Medical Art by Servier. (n.d.). Retrieved from
https://smart.servier.com/. Figure modified
from Servier Medical Art by Servier, licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License.
469Cutaneous infections and medications
Medicinal Plants as Anti-infectives
Renewed interest in metalorganic molecule combinations
For the past 20 years, linked to the antibiotic crisis, but also because the mechanisms of
action and toxicity of metals have become better known, metals have enjoyed a revival of
interest (
Lemire et al., 2013), which in turn has led to a renewed focus on these ancient
remedies combining plants and metals. In order to study and understand this past use, we
felt necessary to take a look at the current use of metals, and their formulation. With
regard to the fight against bacterial infections, metals can be used as drug adjuvants, incor-
porated into organometallic molecules, or metal nanoparticles.
Metal salts are used as an adjuvant in some drugs. For example, Pylera, a drug pre-
scribed to combat Helicobacter pylo ri infections, is a combination of four antibiotics and a
metal, bismuth (
Hu, Zhu, & Lu, 2017). Another way of using metals in the form of elemen-
tary particles is to use a so-called Trojan horse strategy, whereby the cell incorporates a
toxic metal in place of a biological metal; for example, some strategies aim at replacing
iron, a metal that is essential for the catalytic activity of many enzymes, with gallium, a
toxic metal that is structurally close to iron (
Abd-El-Aziz, Agatemor, & Etkin, 2017;
Albada & Metzler-Nolte, 2017; Banin et al., 2008; Chitambar, 2016; Golonka, Yeoh, &
Vijay-Kumar, 2019; Greenberg, Banin, Banin, Berenshtein, & Chevion, 2007; Gunawan,
Teoh, Marquis, & Amal, 2011; Mislin & Schalk, 2014; Nairz et al., 2018; Ong & Gasser,
2019; Patra, Gasser, & Metzler-Nolte, 2012; Ruparelia, Chatterjee, Duttagupta, & Mukherji,
2008; Sierra, Casarrubios, & de la Torre, 2019; Sotiriou & Pratsinis, 2010
)(Fig. 14.3).
Recent studies have shown that such molecules (elemental metal; organometallic mole-
cules; metal nanoparticles) were already used in the past, exploiting the available wealth
of the environment. Through a few examples from the Indo-Arabic tradition, we will
show that ancient scientists already possessed re latively precise notions of the toxicity of
metals and that through well-mastered protocols, they were able to transform these metals
to give them different formulations, functions, and coatings, capable of profoundly chang-
ing the activity and toxicity of metals. The arsenal that we are beginning to develop was
already in place centuries ago (i.e.,
Barillo & Marx, 2014; Dolwett & Sorensen, 1985; Lev,
2002
), and can reveal quite original and unexpected combinations, but their characteriza-
tion will require important investigations.
Elementary metal particle
In past Arab or Middle Eastern tradition, we find many metal salts associated with
treatments against symptoms reminiscent of bacterial infections, but more generally for
external care (eye care, skincare, etc.) and less integrated into ingested remedies; as metal
salts are not very soluble at physiological pH, there was a high risk that they would pre-
cipitate and accumulate in digestive organs without reaching their target. Different salts
could be used for a single metal. Chemists recognized the different salts, assigned them
different functions, and used them for different treatments. Different salts of copper were
commonly used to treat different conditions (
Le Bonniec & Histoire naturelle, 1953). For
example, black copper oxide was given with honey to remove intestinal worms; misy is
found in eye drops (
Dolwett and Sorensen, 1985). In addition, practitioners were aware of
the toxic effects of metals, thus although Pb has been shown to be highly toxic to humans,
470 14. The case of cutaneous infections’ remedies
Medicinal Plants as Anti-infectives
it was widely used in the past, notably as an antiinfective (either in make-up to promote
protective immunity or in the remedies themselves), which is still debatable and would
call into question the reasoned use of metals at that time. Nevertheless, the toxicity of Pb
was known even in antiquity. Its therapeutic use was documented and regulated as
reported by
Lanoe
¨
(2002). As an antiinfective, Pb was mainly used externally, which lim-
ited the diffusion of this toxic metal in the body, while concentrating its action on the site
of the infection. Knowledge of metal toxicity was not limited to Pb. For example, Hg (mer-
cury) formulations were also used (
Vaidya & Mehendale, 2014). Its toxicity was also
known since ancient times, as reported by Pliny the Elder (
Le Bonniec & Histoire
FIGURE 14.3 Metals in antibacterial strategies. In this scheme are depicted different strategies using metals to
inhibit bacterial growth. Trojan horse: For their iron supply, bacteria produce siderophore molecules (small iron chela-
tors) that are exported outside the cell where they bind iron before being imported back into the bacteria. One Trojan
Horse strategy consists in fooling the bacteria by giving siderophore molecules bound to a toxic metal, which will be
imported as natural ironsiderophore complexes. For example, gallium is imported through the siderophore desfer-
rioxamine (DFO) by the pathogen Pseudomonas aeruginosa. In the cell, gallium takes the place of iron in different
iron-dependent molecules and inactivates them. Metal deprivation: Other iron chelators can be used to deprive the
cell from this metal, and thus inhibit bacterial growth. Adjuvant: metals can also be used in combination with antibio-
tics to improve their efficacy, like gentamycin which antibacterial activity is improved when combined to
DFOgallium. Nanoparticles: among their different effect on bacteria, they accumulate on the membrane, disrupt it,
and generate ROS. Organometallic compounds: many different organometallic compounds have been designed, like
silver sulfadiazine, to inhibit bacterial growth, although their mechanism of action is not always well understood. See
text for details. Source: From Abd-El-Aziz, Agatemor, & Etkin, 2017; Albada & Metzler-Nolte, 2017; Banin et al., 2008;
Chitambar, 2016; Golonka, Yeoh, & Vijay-Kumar, 2019; Greenberg, Banin, Banin, Berenshtein, & Chevion, 2007;
Gunawan, Teoh, Marquis, & Amal, 2011; Mislin & Schalk, 2014; Nairz et al., 2018; Ong & Gasser, 2019; Patra, Gasser, &
Metzler-Nolte, 2012; Ruparelia, Chatterjee, Duttagupta, & Mukherji, 2008; Sierra, Casarrubios, & de la Torre, 2019;
Sotiriou & Pratsinis, 2010. Servier Medical Art by Servier. (n.d.). Retrieved from
https://smart.servier.com/.
Figure modified from Servier Medical Art by Servier, licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License.
471Cutaneous infections and medications
Medicinal Plants as Anti-infectives
naturelle, 1953), and chemists in the past knew that different formulations of Hg resulted
in different toxicity. Hg was therefore preferably used in the form of cinnabar (sulfur salt,
HgS), whose toxicity has recently been estimated to be . 3 logs lower than that of the
well-known and toxic mercury salts [Me-Hg, HgCl
2
;(Wu et al., 2011)]. It is therefore possi-
ble that these ancient and prudent precautions have altered the benefit/risk balance of the
use of these metals. In the past, medical doctors were therefore aware of the toxicity of
metals, and their use could be carefully controlled.
Recent studies have further shown that past chemists mastered the transformation of
metals and that vario us metal fabrications have evolved to improve the therapeutic poten-
tials of metals. Two studies have revealed this mastery of the transformation of these metal
salts. Litharge (PbO) compounds have been widely used since antiquity either in the for-
mulation of make-up materials or in remedies. A study on the chemical analysis of make-
up samples found in Egyptian tombs, confirmed by the reconstruction of ancient recipes,
showed that two unnatural Pb chlorides (laurionite Pb(OH)Cl and phosgenite Pb
2
Cl
2
CO
3
)
were purposely synthesized from litharge and triggered pro-inflammatory activity
(
Tapsoba, Arbault, Walter, & Amatore, 2010) to prev ent infections. We recently showed
that, through a different transformation process, physicians could obtain Pb acetate with
the opposite antiinflammatory properties, which promoted wou nd healing (Abdallah
et al.; manuscript in revision). It seems that, even without knowing the structure of metal
salts, these practitioners knew that different formulations could have different properties,
they knew how to process the metal to obtain these formulations, and used these salts
appropriately.
Metals could also have another role in treatment, which can be found in eye care. The
warm, dry air of Middle Eastern countries dried out the eyes, making them more suscepti-
ble to infection. As metals precipitate in physiological fluids, the irritation from these
metal particles caused tears and thus contributed to better eye protection.
Organometallic molecule
Metals can also be found in a complex form with organic molecules. Many polyphenolic
derivatives from plants show the ability to bind metals. This metal chelating property has
been widely characterized through the study of siderophores, small molecules produced
by bacteria to import iron. These molecules are produced by the bacteria, exported to the
outside environment to chelate iron, and then reimported to ensure iron supply (
Miethke
& Marahiel, 2007; Schalk & Cunrath, 2016
). These molecules generally belong to four large
families, carboxylates, phenolates, catecholates, or hydroxamates (
Wilson, Bogdan,
Miyazawa, Hashimoto, & Tsuji, 2016
). Other molecules with similar structures have since
shown chelating properties for iron or other metals. Plants in particular produce numerous
phenolic derivatives, some examples of which are shown in
Fig. 14.4.
These phenolic compounds have generated interest due to their different properties,
including their antimicrobial activity (
Alu’datt et al., 2017; Sakihama, Cohen, Grace, &
Yamasaki, 2002
). They have been recognized largely as beneficial antioxidants that can
scavenge harmful active oxygen species including O
22.
,H
2
O
2
, OH. In contrast to their
antioxidant activity, phytophenolics also have the potential to act as prooxidants under
472 14. The case of cutaneous infections’ remedies
Medicinal Plants as Anti-infectives
certain conditions. For example, flavonoids and dihydroxycinnamic acids can nick DNA
via the production of radicals in the presence of Cu and O
2
. Phenoxyl radicals can also ini-
tiate lipid peroxidation. Recently, Al, Zn, Ca, Mg, and Cd have been found to stimulate
phenoxyl radical-induced lipid peroxidation (
Sakihama et al., 2002). Their ability to chelate
iron, already compared in rat with a current iron-chelation therapy (
El-Sheikh, Ameen, &
AbdEl-Fatah, 2018
) can also deprive bacteria of this precious metal and stop its growth.
All these activities related to their ability to bind metals may explain their antibacterial
activity, although the precise mechanisms have not been studied, nor how these com-
pounds are imported into the cell, which may be favored by the presence of metals: some
of these compounds, chelated with metals, could indeed be recognized by the cell as
metal-siderophore derivatives and thus be imported into the cell, as it has been shown for
human catecholamine (
Perraud et al., 2020).
An example well studied is from turmeric (Bagchi, Mukherjee, Bho wmick, & Raha,
2015; Hatamie et al., 2012; Hatcher, Planalp, Cho, Torti, & Torti, 2008; Refat, 2013; Song
et al., 2009; Wanninger, Lorenz, Subhan, & Edelmann, 2015
).
Metal nanoparticles
Another form in which metals can be found is nanoparticles. Simple or composite metal
nanoparticles are composed of clusters of atoms and have a size range of 1100 nm.
Nanoparticles have been fabricated using various metals combined with organic and inor-
ganic moieties and metallic nanomaterials (in particular those made of Cu and Ag) and
can have strong antibacterial properties (
Benoit, Sims, & Fraser, 2019; Hemeg, 2017;
Lemire et al., 2013; Vimbela, Ngo, Fraze, Yang, & Stout, 2017
). They could further help
combine organic and inorganic functions, but it is important to notice that their functional
properties, their solubility, their ’transit’, their toxicity differ widely from the elementary
FIGURE 14.4 Examples
of active phytophenolic com-
pounds. Phenolic compounds
are prevalent in plants and
are known to have, among
others capacities, antioxidant,
antibacterial, antiinflamma-
tory, and antitumoral proper-
ties. Besides, some of them
may bind metals thanks to the
presence of chemical groups
also present in siderophores
like phenolate (green) and
catecholate (red). The effect of
this metal chelation potential
is still not known, except for
some examples like curcumin.
473Cutaneous infections and medications
Medicinal Plants as Anti-infectives