Добавил:
Sekretar
kiopkiopkiop18@yandex.ru
t.me/Prokururor I Вовсе не секретарь, но почту проверяю
Опубликованный материал нарушает ваши авторские права? Сообщите нам.
Вуз:
Предмет:
Файл:Ординатура / Хирургия / Библиотека им академика М.И. Перельмана / Книга_5442_Библиотеки_им_академика_М_И_Перельмана.pdf
patients may even occur due to secondary infection by commensal bacteria. Several stud-
ies conducted identified commensal bacteria such as Bacillus subtilis and Staphylococcus
epidermidis to be the cause of septicemia by nosocomial infection (
Christensen et al., 1982;
Saleh, Kheirandish, Azizi, & Azizi, 2014
).
The most common cause of infections in dermal or postsurgical wounds is due to the
colonization of these wounds by bacteria from either the environment or normal flora of
the human body which have pathogenic potential (
Singal & Grover, 2016). The normal
human flora consists of an aggregate of all microbiota that reside in and on the human
body. These microbes may compete and synergistically interact to modulate each other
and prevent the colonization of pathogenic microbes. However, imbalances in the skin can
lead to infection of dermal wounds or even cause nosocomial infections. Breaks in the skin
can cause numerous changes, such as a shift in pH, which may favor the growth of one
microbe to another, thus altering the balanced dynamic between microbiota of the skin,
therefore, perpetuating the growth of certain bacteria (
Saleh et al., 2014).
Bacillus subtilis
Bacillus subtilis is a Gram-positive rod-shaped bacterium found largely in soil and
decomposing plant material and is essential in the degradation of waste products. This
spore-forming pathogen is a facultative aerobe and has an optimal growth temperature
ranging from 25
Cto35
C(Turnbull, 1996). The bacterium is considered nonpathogenic
to humans; however, it can cause secondary nosocomial infections in immunocompro-
mised patients which may be lethal. In addition to infections of dermal wounds and burns,
B. subtilis also causes infections of the respiratory and urinary tracts (
Saleh et al., 2014).
Bacillus subtilis secretes tissue-damaging toxins and enzymes such as penicillinase,
which inactivate penicillin, thereby interfering with certain penicillin-based antibiotic
treatments. This microorganism also has the ability to produce antibiotic compounds such
as ribosomal antibiotics (i.e., subtilosin and sublancin) (
Saleh et al., 2014), which play an
important role in the first step of infection through the process of niche establishment and
microbial monopolization. The secretion of antibiotics eliminates competing bacteria and
allows for the bacterium to thrive since this pathogen has acquired immunity against the
self-produced antibiotics (
Turnbull, 1996). For example, B. subtilis may secrete penicillin
whilst also producing penicillinase enzyme to provide the bacterium with immunity
against the antibiotic (
Saleh et al., 2014).
Treating infections caused by B. subtilis has sever al challenges including the develop-
ment of antibiotic resistance, and antagonistic interaction between self-produced antibio-
tics and administered antibiotics (
Hashimoto et al., 2017).
Staphylococcus aureus
Staphylococcus aureus is a Gram-positive, cocci-shaped bacterium that forms part of the
normal human flora of the skin and mucous. This opportunistic pathogen is a highly resil-
ient facultative anaerobe that can survive extreme conditions, thriving in moderately acidic
environments (pH 46) and at a temperature of approximately 37
C. This bacterium is
144 4. Medicinal plants used in South Africa as antibacterial agents for wound healing
Medicinal Plants as Anti-infectives
highly resistant to antibiotics, such as methicillin and β-lactam antibiotics, and can cause a
vast range of infections including those of the respiratory tract, soft tissue, and epidermis
(
Cohen & Kurzrock, 2004).
Staphylococcus aureus infections of the epidermis are considered nonlethal if treated
accordingly; however, S. aureus infections may spread to deeper tissues within the body
if the soft tissues are exposed. Dermal lesions and injured tissue maintain a slightly
acidic environment which creates optimal conditions for cellular functions and the
wound-healing process to occur (
Schneider, Korber, Grabbe, & Dissemond, 2007). These
conditions, however, also provide a favorable environment in which S. aureus may prolif-
erate (
Cohen & Kurzrock, 2004). Staphylococcus aureus secretes toxins that facilitate patho-
genic attachment to the host surface or cause harm to the host tissue aiding the spread of
infection. The secreted toxins adversely affect the host tissue by damaging cell membranes
or exerting enzymatic degradation of essential host molecules. Hemolysins and leukotox-
ins are pathogenic factors that target and cause lysis of red and white blood cells, respec-
tively. The lysis of cells causes the release of ce llular contents containing nutrients that can
sustain S. aureus and further progress the infection. This cycle continues as more red and
white blood cells are continuously transported to the site of infection during the inflamma-
tory response (
Zhang, Hu, & Rao, 2017). Staphylococcus aureus damages the host tissue
upon secretion of α-toxins which facilitate the degradation of cellular adhesion molecules,
such as E-cadherin, in epithelial cells. The degradation of tissue structures and induced
cellular lysis inhibits the wound-healing process allowing for an increased infection
(
Otto, 2014). Deep tissue infections of S. aureus are difficult to treat with antibiotics due to
the multidrug resistance of the pathogen (
Shajari & Khorshidi, 2002).
Staphylococcus epidermidis
Staphylococcus epidermidis is a Gram-positive, cocci-shaped bacterium that forms part of the
normal microflora of the skin. This bacterium is found mainly on the skin or sweat glands
and is responsible for the production of body odor through perspiration. This facultative
anaerobe can cause opportunistic infections such as nosocomial infections in immunocompro-
mised patients, especially through infection of surgical wounds (
Rupp, Fey, Heilmann, &
Go
¨
tz, 2001
). Forming part of the human microbiome of the skin, S. epidermidis may surpass
other competing bacteria leading to the infection of dermal wounds.
Infections by S. epidermidis are often treatable due to their susceptibility to antibiotics
such as penicillinase-resistant penicilli n and cephalosporin antibiotics, which disrupt
the formation of the peptidoglycan layer within the bacterial cell membrane. However,
the pathogen has been reported to easily acquire antibiotic resistance through horizontal
gene transfer of antibiotic resistance genes between other species of Staphylococcus such as
Staphylococcus aureus (
Forbes & Schaberg, 1983).
Pseudomonas aeruginosa
Pseudomonas aeruginosa is a Gram-negative, bacillus-shaped bacterium which has an
optimal growth temperature of 37
C which is able to infect soft tissues such as the urinary
145Bacteria associated with infections of dermal wounds
Medicinal Plants as Anti-infectives
and respiratory tract, and dermal wounds. Chronic wound infections by P. aeruginosa may
develop due to the ability of this pathogen to avoid phagocytosis through the downregula-
tion and alteration of flagella proteins on the pathogens surface, which play a role in path-
ogen detection and phagocyte activation (
Amiel, Lovewell, O’Toole, Hogan, & Berwin,
2010).
Pseudomonas aeruginosa is highly resistant to beta-lactam antibiotics as well as first- and
second-generation cephalosporins, due to decreased bacterial cell wall permeability
(
Micek et al., 2005). Although combinatorial antibiotic therapy has been reported to be an
effective treatment against this pathogen, infections by P. aeruginosa are difficult to treat
due to the intrinsic antibiotic resistance (
Rahal, 2006).
South African medicinal plant species with activity against wound-associated
bacteria
Several plants are traditionally used in South Africa for their wound-healing activity,
which are discussed below (
Fig. 4.3). These plants were further evaluated for their antibac-
terial activity against wound-associated bacteria, as summarized in
Table 4.1. According to
Rahal (2006) antimicrobial thresholds have been defined for medicinal plants with an MIC
of , 100 μg/mL as having strong/significant antimicrobial activity, while those with MICs
of 100625 μg/mL have moderate activity. For compounds, MICs ,10 μg/mL are consid-
ered noteworthy, while those with MICs between 64 and 100 μg/mL are considered clini-
cally relevant.
In addition, the in vitro and in vivo wound-healing activity and toxic potential of the
traditionally used plants were summarized in
Tables 4.2 and 4.3
Aloe barberae Dyer
Aloe barberae Dyer is the largest tree-forming Aloe species that is indigenous to South
Africa and is found in the Eastern Cape, KwaZulu-Natal, and northwards to Mozambique
(
Ndhlala, Amoo, Stafford, Finnie, & Van Staden, 2009a). This slow-growing tree succulent
belongs to the Asphodelaceae family and can reach an average height of 9 m but can reach
heights of 18 m (
Succulent Plant Site, 2004). The A. barberae tree has dichotomous branch-
ing and is covered in a smooth gray bark. Each branch forms succulent rosettes of curved
dark-green leaves with light-green spines lining the leaf margins. This Aloe species has a
multibranched inflorescence that does not grow much higher than the leaf rosettes. The
flower racemes appear swollen or round in shape and salmon-pink in color. Aloe barberae
is highly resilient and long-living once established with a flowering period throughout
MayJuly, over early to midwinter (
Ndhlala et al., 2009a).
Traditional usage
Aloe barberae Dyer has been used by the natives of the Eastern Cape and KwaZulu-
Natal to treat wounds and skin irritations based on its hydrating and antiinflammatory
properties. Similarly, to other aloe species, the leaf sap of A. barberae possesses hydrating
146 4. Medicinal plants used in South Africa as antibacterial agents for wound healing
Medicinal Plants as Anti-infectives
properties which can be used to treat skin conditions such as eczema. However, traditional
medicinal uses and preparations of A. barberae have not been well documented apart from
deduction of knowledge pertaining to the use of other Aloe species (
Ndhlala, Amoo,
Stafford, Finnie, & Van Staden, 2009b
).
Aloe excelsa Berger
Aloe excelsa, also known as the “Zimbabwe Aloe,” is an unbranched tree-forming Aloe
species belonging to the “Asphodelaceae” family that is native to the Northern and
Western Cape provinces of South Africa. It grows to an average height of 46 m with old,
dried leaves running along the trunk of the plant. Aloe excelsa leaves grow in rosette forma-
tion and can reach a length of 1 m each. The rosettes sprout a branched inflorescence with
FIGURE 4.3 Plants traditionally used in South Africa for wound healing (A) Aloe barberae Dyer, (B) Aloe excelsa
Berger, (C) Aloe ferox Miller, (D) Elephantorrhiza elephantina (Burch.) Skeel leaves and pods, (E) Elephantorrhiza
elephantina (Burch.) Skeel flowers, (F) Erythrina lysistemon Hutch., (G) Galenia africana L., (H) Grewia occidentalis L.,
(I) Melianthus comosus Vahl. leaves, (J) Melianthus comosus Vahl. flowers, (K) Plectranthus fruticosus L’ He
´
r, (L)
Sutherlandia frutescens (L.) R.Br., and (M) Urtica urens L.
147South African medicinal plant species with activity against wound-associated bacteria
Medicinal Plants as Anti-infectives
TABLE 4.1 Antibacterial activity of plants used in South Africa for the treatment of wounds.
Plant species/family Extraction solvent Plant part Antibacterial activity Reference
Aloe barberae Dyer/
Asphodelaceae
Petroleum ether Whole leaf MIC: 0.78 mg/mL (B. subtilis) MIC: 1.5 mg/mL (S. aureus)
Ndhlala et al. (2009a)
Dichloromethane MIC: 0.39 mg/mL (B. subtil is)MIC:0.78mg/mL(S. aureus)
Ethanol MIC: 0.78 mg/mL (B. subtilis and S. aureus)
Water MIC: 1.56 mg/mL (B. subtil is)MIC:6.25mg/mL(S. aureus)
Petroleum ether Upper stem MIC: 3.125 mg/mL (B. subtilis and S. aureus)
Dichloromethane MIC: 1.56 mg/mL (B. subtilis and S. aureus)
Ethanol MIC: 3.125 mg/mL (B. subtilis and S. aureus)
Water MIC: 6.25 mg/mL (B. subtilis and S. aureus)
Petroleum ether Young bark MIC: 1.56 mg/mL (B. subtilis and S. aureus)
Dichloromethane MIC: 1.56 mg/mL (B. subtilis and S. aureus)
Ethanol MIC: 1.56 mg/mL (B. subtilis and S. aureus)
Water MIC: 3.125 mg/mL (B. subtilis and S. aureus)
Petroleum ether Mature
bark
MIC: 0.78 mg/mL (B. subtilis and S. aureus)
Dichloromethane MIC: 0.39 mg/mL (B. subtilis and S. aureus)
Ethanol MIC: 1.56 mg/mL (B. subtilis) MIC: 3.125 mg/mL
(S. aureus)
Water MIC: 3.125 mg/mL (B. subtilis and S. aureus)
Petroleum ether Roots MIC: 1.56 mg/mL (B. subtilis)MIC:0.78mg/mL(S. aureus)
Dichloromethane MIC: 0.78 mg/mL (B. subtil is)MIC:0.39mg/mL(S. aureus)
Ethanol MIC: 1.56 mg/mL (B. subtilis and S. aureus)
Water MIC: 1.56 mg/mL (B. subtil is)MIC:6.25mg/mL(S. aureus)
Aloe excelsa Berger/
Asphodelaceae
Hot water (decoction) Leaves MIC: 5.0 mg/mL (B. subtilis) MIC: 6.0 mg/mL (S. aureus) Coopoosamy and Magwa
(2007)
Ethyl acetate MIC: 3.0 mg/mL (B. subtilis) MIC: 1.0 mg/mL (S. aureus)
Acetone MIC: 2.0 mg/mL (B. subtilis) MIC: 1.0 mg/mL (S. aureus and
S. epidermidis)
Coopoosamy and Magwa
(2007)
Ethanol MIC: 2.0 mg/mL (B. subtilis) MIC: 1.0 mg/mL (S. aureus) Coopoosamy and Naidoo
(2012)
Aloe ferox Miller/
Xanthorrhoeaceae
Leaf material was
homogenized and
filtered
Whole leaf A 1:1 ratio of whole leaf juice and nutrient broth showed
complete growth inhibition of P. aeruginosa and S. aureus after
24 h
Jia, Zhao, and Jia (2008)
Water Leaves No inhibition at a concentration of 50 mg/mL against S. aureus
or P. aeruginosa.
Obi et al., 2003
Elephantorrhiza
elephantina (Burch.)
Skeels/Fabaceae
Ethanol: water (7:3) and
n-butanol
Rhizome Bioautography using TLC showed inhibition of B. subtilis, P.
aeruginosa, and S. aureus at loading capacities lower than 15 μg.
Maroyi (2017)
Methanol Stem
rhizome
Zone of inhibition (ZI): 23.3 mm at 100 mg/mL (S. aureus). MIC:
0.156 mg/mL ( S. aureus)
Mathabe, Nikolova, Lall, and
Nyazema (2006)
Ethanol ZI: 23.7 mm at 100 mg/mL (S. aureus) MIC: 0.156 mg/mL
(S. aureus)
Acetone ZI: 24.0 mm at 100 mg/mL (S. aureus) MIC: 0.132 mg/mL
(S. aureus)
Water ZI: 25.0 mm at 100 mg/mL (S. aureus) MIC: 0.156 mg/mL
(S. aureus)
Ethanol Root ZI: 1.0 mm (B. subtilis) ZI: 3.0 mm (S. aureus) ZI: 2.5 mm
(P. aeruginosa)
Mukanganyama, Ntumy,
Maher, Muzila, and Andrae-
Marobela (2011)
Dichloromethane:
methanol (1:1)
Leaf MIC: 0.5 mg/mL [S. aureus and Gentamycin methicillin-resistant
Staphylococcus aureus (GMRSA)] MIC: 1.0 mg/mL [Methicillin-
resistant S. aureus (MRSA)] MIC: 0.38 mg/mL (S. epidermidis)MIC:
1.0 mg/mL (P. aeruginosa)
Mabona, Viljoen, Shikanga,
Marston, and Van Vuuren
(2013)
Root and
rhizome
MIC: 0.5 mg/mL (S. aureus, MRSA and GMRSA) and MIC:
1.0 mg/mL (S. epidermidis)MIC:2.0mg/mL(P. aeruginosa)
(Continued)
TABLE 4.1 (Continued)
Plant species/family Extraction solvent Plant part Antibacterial activity Reference
Water Leaf MIC: 16 mg/mL (S. aureus and S. epidermidis)MIC:8.0mg/mL
(MRSA and GMRSA) MIC: 12 mg/mL (P. aeruginosa)
Root and
rhizome
MIC: 2.0 mg/ mL (S. aureus and GMRSA) MIC: 1.0 mg/mL
(MRSA) MIC: 4.0 mg/mL (S. epidermidis and P. aeruginosa)
Dichloromethane:
methanol
Rhizome MIC: 2000 μg/mL (GMRSA) MIC: 4000 μg/mL (MRSA) MIC:
1000 μg/mL (S. aureus and S. epidermidis) MIC: 500 μg/mL
(P. aeruginosa)
Nciki, Vuuren, Van Eyk, and
De Wet (2016)
Water MIC: 4000 μg/mL (GMRSA, MRSA and S. epidermidis)MIC:
6000 μg/mL (S. aureus) MIC: 2000 μg/mL (P. aeruginosa)
70% ethanol Antibacterial activity at a loading capacity of 10, 13, and 15 μg
against B. subtilis, S. aureus, and P. aeruginosa, respectively
Aaku et al. (1998)
n-butanol fraction Antibacterial activity at a loading capacity of 4, 6, and 8 μgagainst
B. subtilis, S. aureus,andP. aeruginosa, respectively
Erythrina lysistemon
Hutch./Fabaceae
Ethyl acetate Leaves ZI (extract at 1 mg/mL)/ZI (neomycin 200500 μg/mL): no activity
on S. aureus, S. epidermidis, B. subtilis,andP. aeruginosa
Pillay, Ja
¨
ger, Mulholland,
and Van Staden (2001)
Bark ZI (extract at 1 mg/mL)/ZI (neomycin 200500 μg/mL): 0.9
(S. aureus) and 0.4 (B. subtilis); no activity on S. epidermidis or
P. aeruginosa
Ethanol Leaves ZI (extract at 1 mg/mL)/ZI (neomycin 200500 μg/mL): no
activity on S. aureus, S. epidermidis, B. subtilis, and P. aeruginosa
Bark ZI (extract at 1 mg/mL)/ZI (neomycin 200500 μg/mL): 0.7
(S. aureus) and 0.4 (B. subtilis); no activity on S. epidermidis or
P. aeruginosa
Water Leaves ZI (extract at 1 mg/mL)/ZI (neomycin 200500 μg/mL): no activity
on S. aureus, S. epidermidis, B. subtilis,andP. aeruginosa
Bark ZI(extractat1mg/mL)/ZI(neomycin200500 μg/mL): 0.8
(S. aureus)and0.5(B. subtilis); no activity on S. epidermidis or
P. aeruginosa ZI: 0 mm against P. aeruginosa and S. aureu s
Nsele (2012), Pillay et al.
(2001)
60% Ethanol tincture Bark ZI: 1 mm (P. aeruginosa), 60% ethanol alone showed ZI of 2 mm
ZI: 4 mm (S. aureus), 60% ethanol alone showed ZI of 1 mm
Nsele (2012)
Dichloromethane Stem bark MIC: 104 μg/mL (S. aureus)MIC:5μg/mL (S. epidermidis) MIC:
500 μg/mL (P. aeruginosa)
Sadgrove, Oliveira,
Khumalo, van Vuuren, and
van Wyk (2020)
Leaves MIC: 0.313 (1 h) and 0.156 mg/mL (24 h) (P. aeruginosa) MIC:
0.313 (1 and 24 h) (S. aureus)
Mukandiwa, Naidoo, and
Eloff (2012)
Methanol Stem bark MIC: 125 μg/mL (S. aureus and S. epidermidis) MIC: 830 μg/mL
(P. aeruginosa)
Mukandiwa et al. (2012),
Sadgrove et al. (2020)
Leaves MIC: 0.313 (1 h) and 0.156 mg/mL (24 h) (P. aeruginosa) MIC:
0.313 (1 and 24 h) (S. aureus)
Mukandiwa et al. (2012)
Acetone Leaves MIC: 0.313 (1 h) and 0.156 mg/mL (24 h) (P. aeruginosa) MIC:
0.156 (1 h) and 0.078 mg/mL (24 h) (S. aureus)
Hexane MIC: 0.625 (1 and 24 h) (P. aeruginosa) MIC: 1.25 (1 and 24 h)
(S. aureus)
Galenia africana
L./Aizoaceae
80% Ethanol Unspecified MIC: 3.125 mg/mL (S. aureus, MRSA) and methicillin-sensitive
strain (MSSA). Minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC):
3.125 mg/mL (MSSA) MBC: 6.25 mg/mL (MRSA)
Ng’uni et al (2018)
Hot water (decoction) Fresh aerial MIC: .0.48 mg/mL (S. aureus, S. epidermidis,andP. aeruginosa) Elbagory, Meyer, Cupido,
and Hussein (2017)
Gold nanoparticles
prepared from hot water
decoction
MIC: . 32 nM (S. aureus and S. epidermidis) MIC: 32 nM
(P. aeruginosa)
Grewia occidentalis
L./Malvaceae
Methanol Shoots MIC: 1.0 mg/mL (S. aureus) MIC: 4.0 mg/mL
(P. aeruginosa and B. subtilis)
Grierson and Afolayan
(1999)
Acetone MIC: . 5.0 mg/mL (S. aureus, P. aeruginosa, and B. subtilis)
Water MIC: 1.0 mg/mL (S. aureus) MIC: .5.0 mg/mL
(P. aeruginosa and B. subtilis)
Roots MIC: .12.5 mg/mL (B. subtilis) MIC: 12.5 mg/mL (S. aureus)
Mabona (2013)
Petroleum ether Roots MIC: 3.125 mg/mL (B. subtilis) MIC: 12.5 mg/mL
(S. aureus)
Dichloromethane MIC: 3.125 mg/mL (B. subtilis and S. aureus)
Ethanol MIC: 0.78 mg/mL (S. aureus) MIC: 3.125 mg/mL
(B. subtilis)
(Continued)
TABLE 4.1 (Continued)
Plant species/family Extraction solvent Plant part Antibacterial activity Reference
Melianthus comosus
Vahl/Melianthaceae
Acetone Leaves MIC: .6.3 mg/mL (P. aeruginosa) MIC: 0.78 (S. aureus) MIC:
0.00078 mg/mL (S. aureus)
McGaw and Eloff (2005)
Ethanol MIC: 0.500 mg/mL; MBC: 2.00 mg/mL (MSSA) MIC:
0.391 mg/mL; MBC: 1.562 mg/mL (MRSA)
Heyman, Hussein, Meyer,
and Lall (2009)
Dichloromethane:
methanol (1:1)
MIC: 0.4 mg/mL (S. aureus) MIC: 0.5 mg/mL (MRSA) MIC:
0.25 mg/mL (GMRSA) MIC: 0.25 mg/mL
(S. epidermidis) MIC: 0.10 mg/mL (P. aeruginosa)
Mabona et al. (2013)
Water MIC: 1.60 (S. aureus) MIC: 0.25 mg/mL (MRSA) MIC:
0.25 mg/mL (GMRSA) MIC: 0.25 mg/mL (S. epidermidis) MIC:
2.00 mg/mL (P. aeruginosa)
Methanol MIC: 2.00 mg/mL (S. aureus) MIC: 4.00 mg/mL
(S. epidermidis) MIC: 8.00 mg/mL (B. subtilis) MIC:
. 8.00 mg/mL (P. aeruginosa)
Kelmanson, Ja
¨
ger, and Van
Staden (2000)
Plectranthus fruticosus/
Lamiaceae
Essential oil from
hydrodistillation
Leaves No activity was observed against S. aureus, S. epidermidis,or
P. aeruginosa
Maistry (2003)
Polystichum pungens
(Kaulf.) C. Presl/
Dryopteridaceae
Methanol Shoots MIC: 5.0 mg/mL (P. aeruginosa) MIC: 0.5 mg/mL
(S. aureus) MIC: 1.0 mg/mL (B. subtilis)
Grierson and Afolayan
(1999)
Acetone MIC: . 5.0 mg/mL (P. aeruginosa) MIC: 1.0 mg/mL
(S. aureus) MIC: 0.5 mg/mL (B. subtilis)
Water MIC: .5.0 mg/mL (P. aeruginosa) MIC: 0.5 mg/mL
(S. aureus) MIC: 5.0 mg/mL (B. subtilis)
Sutherlandia frutescens
(L.) R.Br/Fabaceae
Hexane Leaves MIC: 0.31 mg/mL (S. aureus)MIC:.10 mg/mL
(P. aeruginosa)
Katerere and Eloff (2005)
Acetone (sequential
extraction)
MIC: . 10 mg/mL (S. aureus) MIC: 2.5 mg/mL
(P. aeruginosa)
Dichloromethane
(sequential extraction)
MIC: 2.5 mg/mL (S. aureus) MIC: 5.0 mg/mL
(P. aeruginosa)
Ethyl acetate (sequential
extraction)
MIC: 1.25 mg/mL (S. aureus) MIC: 5.0 mg/mL
(P. aeruginosa)
Acetone MIC: 10 mg/mL (S. aureus) MIC: 1.25 mg/mL
(P. aeruginosa)
Ethanol MIC: 10 mg/mL (S. aureus and P. aeruginosa)
Water MIC: 10 mg/mL (S. aureus and P. aeruginosa)
Gold and silver
nanoparticles prepared
from a water extract
Leaf MIC of water extract: .50 mg/mL (S. epidermidis and
P. aeruginosa) MIC of AgNPs: 0.075 mg/mL (S. epidermidis and
P. aeruginosa)
Dube, Meyer, Madiehe, and
Meyer (2020)
Urtica urens L./
Urticaceae
Petroleum ether Leaf MIC: 6.125 mg/mL (B. subtilis) MIC: 3.125 mg/mL
(S. aureus) MIC: 6.25 mg/mL (S. epidermidis)
Thibane, Ndhlala,
Abdelgadir, Finnie, and Van
Staden (2019)
Dichloromethane MIC: 1.562 mg/mL (B. subtilis) MIC: 1.562 mg/mL
(S. aureus) MIC: 6.25 mg/mL (S. epidermidis)
70% Ethanol MIC: 0.098 mg/mL (B. subtilis) MIC: 0.098 mg/mL
(S. aureus) MIC: 1.562 mg/mL (S. epidermidis)
Water MIC: 0.098 mg/mL (B. subtilis) MIC: 3.125 mg/mL
(S. aureus) MIC: 6.25 mg/mL (S. epidermidis)
Chloroform Roots MIC: 25 mg/mL (P. aeruginosa) MIC: 12.5 mg/mL
(B. subtilis) MIC: .100 mg/mL (S. aureus)
Rajput, Choudhary, and
Sharma (2019)
Stem MIC: .100 mg/mL (P. aeruginosa)MIC:.100 mg/mL
(B. subtilis) MIC: 25 mg/mL (S. aureus)
Leaves MIC: 12.5 mg/mL (P. aeruginosa) MIC: .100 mg/mL
(B. subtilis) MIC: 12.5 mg/mL (S. aureus)
Methanol Roots MIC: . 100 mg/mL (P. aeruginosa) MIC: 12.5 mg/mL
(B. subtilis) MIC: .100 mg/mL (S. aureus)
Stem MIC: 25 mg/mL (P. aeruginosa) MIC: .100 mg/mL
(B. subtilis) MIC: .100 mg/mL (S. aureus)
Leaves MIC: .100 mg/mL (P. aeruginosa)MIC:.100 mg/mL
(B. subtilis) MIC: 12.5 mg/mL S. aureus
Ethanol Aerial parts MIC: 150 μg/mL (B. subtilis, S. aureus, S. epidermidis, and
P. aeruginosa)
Mzid, Khedir, Salem,
Regaieg, and Rebai (2017)