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et al., 2003). They are also known to be effective against respiratory infections, colds, sinus-
itis, and influenza (
Sadlon & Lamson, 2010). Eucalyptus globulus Labill. (blue gum) oil has
strong antimicrobial activity (
Tohidpour, Sattari, Om idbaigi, Yadegar, & Nazemi, 2010;
Tyagi and Malik, 2011
). Both essential oils and solvent extracts exhibit additive antibacte-
rial effects with antibiotics (Pereira, Dias, Vasconcelos, Rosa, & Saavedra, 2014). E. globulus
(70%) methanol extracts exhibit a stronger antimicrobial activity than pure methanol, ace-
tone, dichloromethane, or water extracts due to larger yield of phenolics in the methanol
solvent (
Pereira et al., 2014). The methanol extracts from E. globulus leaves (extracted at
80
C) showed antibacterial activity against Streptococcus pneumoniae (MIC 90 of 32 mg/L),
Streptococcus pyogenes (MIC 90 of 64 mg/L), S. aureus (MIC 90 of 128 mg/L), and
Haemophilus influenzae (MIC 90 of 32 mg/L). MIC 90 is the MIC required to inhibit
the growth of 90% of organisms tested. In another study, the chloroform:methanol extract
of E. globulus showed the strongest antimicrobial activity with MICs ranging from 1 to
500 μg/mL (
Zonyane, Van Vuuren, & Makunga, 2013). The methanolic extract of a tradi-
tional South African herbal combination made of E. globulus, Agathosma crenulata (L.)
Pillans, and Dodonaea viscosa Jacq. showed strong antibacterial activity with MIC 49 μg/mL
against S. aureus and MIC 98 μg/mL against K. pneumoniae and E. coli (
Zonyane et al.,
2013
). GC-MS analysis of the methanol extract after subfractionation revealed that the
main components with antibacterial activity are citric acid, gallic acid, citramalic acid, and
ellagic acid (
Luı
´
s et al., 2016). The essential oils from E. globulus and 1,8-cineole, one of the
main bioactive components, exhibit antibiofilm effects, antibacterial activity, and antiquor-
um sensing against methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA). The essential oils exhibit stron-
ger antimicrobial activity than its main isolated compounds (Merghni et al., 2018).
Essential oils from E. globulus are rich in oxygenated monoterpenes (78.58%) and 1,8-cine-
ole (55.29%). Spathulenol (7.44%) and alpha-terpineol (5.46%) are also found in lower
amounts. They exhibit a marked antibac terial activity against periodontopathogenic bacte-
rial species with stronger activity on Gram-negative bacteria (
Harkat-Madouri et al., 2015).
Conversely, other studies show stronger antibacterial activity of these oils against Gram-
positive bacteria due to differences in cell wall architecture (
Mulyaningsih, Sporer,
Reichling, & Wink, 2011; Salehi et al., 2019
). Essential oils from E. globulus and other plants
in Lebanon (J. excelsa and Micromeria barbata Boiss. & Kotschy) showed strong antimyco-
bacterial activity (
El Omari et al., 2019).
Portulacaceae
Portulaca oleracea
Portulaca oleracea L., common purslane, is an annual weed from the family
Portulacaceae. It is native to the Mediterranean region and spread worldwide. The leaves
and stems are used in salad and are rich in omega-3 fatty acids (
Petropoulos et al., 2015),
α-linolenic acid, palmitoleic, palmitic, and other fatty acids (
Uddin et al., 2014), carote-
noids, lutein, zeaxanthin, vitamins (
Dias, Camo
˜
es, & Oliveira, 2009), phenolic acids, terpe-
noids, tannins, and other bioactive compounds (
Erkan, 2012). However, it is also rich in
antinutrients such as oxalates that may lead to kidney stone or other deleterious effects on
human health (
Petropoulos et al., 2015). In addition to being part of edible leaves in the
74 2. Plants used in Lebanon and the Middle East as Antimicrobials
Medicinal Plants as Anti-infectives
“Mediterranean diet” (Morales et al., 2014); it also has an important role in folk medicine
(
Lev & Amar, 2002; Menale, De Castro, Cascone, & Muoio, 2016; Petropoulos, Karkanis,
Martins, & Ferreira, 2018; Ramadan, Schaalan, & Tolba, 2017
). P. oleracea is known for its
antioxidant, antimicrobial, cardioprotective, neuroprotective (inhibitors of acetylcholines-
terase), antimutagenic, antiinflammatory, antidiabetic, antinociceptive, and immunomodu-
latory activity (
Alam et al., 2014; Chen, Li, Zhang, Xia, & Zhang, 2016; Chowdhary,
Meruva, Naresh, & Elumalai, 2013; Ramadan et al., 2017; YouGuo, ZongJi, & XiaoPing,
2009
). Topical use of leaf juice is traditionally utilized in Italy and other areas for abdomi-
nal pains, flu, bronchitis, intestinal disorders, inflammation, skin irritation, infections, and
for wound treatment (
De Feo, Ambrosio, & Senatore, 1992; De Feo, Aquino, Menghini,
Ramundo, & Senatore, 1992; Di Novella, Di Novella, De Martino, Mancini, & De Feo, 2013;
Di Sanzo, De Martino, Mancini, & De Feo, 2013; Guarino, De Simone, & Santoro, 2008;
Guarrera & Leporatti, 2007; Passalacqua, Guarrera, & De Fine, 2007; Savo, Caneva, Maria,
& David, 2011; Tuttolomondo et al., 2014
).
Ranunculaceae
Clematis vitalba
Different species of the genus Clematis or from the Ranunculaceae family (Buttercup
family), rich in the glycoside ranunculin, are used in the traditional Lebanese medicine
such as Clematis flammula L. (virgin’s bower), Clematis cirrhosa L. (fern-leaved clematis),
and Clematis vitalba L. (
El Beyrouthy et al., 2008). Clematis genera are rich in active compo-
nents such as pentacyclic triterpenoid saponins (used traditionally in Chinese medicine),
coumarins, flavonoids, and alkaloids (
Chawla, Kumar, & Sharma, 2012). The genus
Clementis is widespread around the world and used in folk medicine for the treatment of
asthma, rheumatism, nervous disorders, malaria, and syphilis. It also has antibacterial,
antiinflammatory (
Yesilada & Ku
¨
peli, 2007), analgesic, and anticancer effects (Chawla
et al., 2012
). C. vitalba L., consumed as food in Italy (Pieroni, Nebel, Quave, & Heinrich,
2002; Pieroni, 1999
), is known to have strong antimicrobial activity (Ali-Shtayeh & Abu
Ghdeib, 1999; Khan, Kihara, & Omoloso, 2001). Methanol extracts of C. vitalba shoots
exhibit a broad antifungal and antibacterial activity (MIC 1.612.3 μg/mL) as shown using
the agar diffusion assay (
Buzzini & Pieroni, 2003).
Nigella sativa
Nigella sativa L. from the Ranunculaceae family is commonly known as Habbat-al-
baraka, Alhabba-al-sawda, Chouniz or Black cumin (
El Beyrouthy et al., 2008). It is widely
used as a medicinal plant through out India and Arabian countries. It is also cultivated in
Europe, Lebanon, and Syria. It was considered as a miraculous herb in ancient traditional
medicine and is mentioned in the Holy Bible (Old Testament), by Prophet Mohammed, by
Avicenna in his book “The Canon of Medicine,” by Hippocrates, and by Dioscorides
(
Yimer, Tuem, Karim, Ur-Rehman, & Anwar, 2019). N. sativa seeds are bitter and are tradi-
tionally used against rheumatism, jaundice, fever, and skin diseases (
Paarakh, 2010). The
seed oils were investigated for antiinflammatory (
Pise & Padwal, 2017; Zakaria, Jais, &
Ishak, 2018), antioxidant, antidiabetic (Daryabeygi-Khotbehsara, Golzarand, Ghaffari, &
75Lebanese plants with antimicrobial activity
Medicinal Plants as Anti-infectives
Djafarian, 2017; El Rabey, Al-Seeni, & Bakhashwain, 2017), gastroprotective, antimicrobial,
antiviral, and antiparasitic activity (
Paarakh, 2010; Yimer et al., 2019). Thymoquinone or
thymoquinone derivatives from N. sativa seed oil extracts show anticancer activities (60%
80% growth inhibition of pancreatic cancer cell lines) when administered for 48 h prior to
gemcitabine or oxaliplatin treatment (
Banerjee et al., 2009; Breyer, Effenberger, & Schobert,
2009
). Crude extracts of N. sativa seeds using different solvents exhibit strong antibacterial
activity. The ethanol extract had an MIC of 0.20.5 mg/mL against MRSA (
Hannan,
Saleem, Chaudhary, Barkaat, & Arshad, 2008
). Seed diethyl ether extracts on filter paper
discs showed both antibacterial and antifungal activity (
Hanafy & Hatem, 1991; Sokmen,
Jones, & Erturk, 1999
). Seed essential oils from N. sativa also exhibit strong antibacterial
(
Kokoska et al., 2008) and antifungal activity (Islam, Ahsan, Hassan, & Malek, 1989;
Mahmoudvand, Sepahvand, Jahanbakhsh, Ezatpour, & Ayatollahi Mousavi, 2014
); this
activity is mostly attributed to the volatile oil thymoquinone (
Abdallah, 2017; Paarakh,
2010; Toama, El-Alfy, & El-Fatatry, 1974
). Thymoquinone had an MIC of 832 g/mL
against Gram-positive bacteria and inhibited biofilm formation of S. aureus and S. epidermi-
dis (
Chaieb, Kouidhi, Jrah, Mahdouani, & Bakhrouf, 2011). N. sativa oils exhibit strong
antibacterial activity against MRSA (
Al-Jaafary, Al-Atiyah, Al-Khamis, Al-Sultan, & Badger-
Emeka, 2016; Gawron et al., 2019
) at different oil concentrations (20%100% oil) but not
against E. coli and Acinetobacter baumannii (
Al-Jaafary et al., 2016). Crude N. sativa alkaloid
and water extracts showed stronger antibacterial activity against Gram-negative bacteria
(
Morsi, 2000); whereas essential oils (Kokoska et al., 2008) and crude methanol seed extracts
(
Hasan, Nawahwi, & Malek, 2013) showed stronger antibacterial activity against Gram-
positive bacteria.
Rutaceae
Ruta species
Different species of the genus Ruta (Ruta chalepensis L., Ruta graveolens L., and Ruta mon-
tana L.) are known in the Mediterranean region for their importance in folk medicine.
Their importance is discussed in Hippocrates’ work in treating pulmonary and gynecolog-
ical conditions (
Pollio, De Natale, Appetiti, Aliotta, & Touwaide, 2008). The Rutaceae fam-
ily is commonly known as the rue or citrus family. R. graveolens essential oils and leaf
extracts are used as a tonic or for the traditional treatment against cold headaches, demen-
tia, and ear pain (
Jari
´
c et al., 2011). R. chalepensis (fringed rue) leaf infusions (or chewed)
are used for treating eye diseases (anti inflammatory), stomach ache, intestinal worms,
respiratory problems, menstrual problems, and other conditions (
Leto et al., 2013; Menale
et al., 2016; Miara et al., 2019
). High amounts may lead to some toxic effects such as vomit-
ing, abortion, gastroenteritis, and confusion (
Gedif & Hahn, 2003; Haile et al., 2017). The
“rue juice” is considered as a repellent to keep scorpions away (
Gonza
´
lez & Vallejo, 2013).
R. chalepensis has antimicrobial (
Kacem et al., 2015), anticancer, and antiinflammatory
activity (
Khlifi et al., 2013; Miara et al., 2019). It is rich in flavonoids, alkaloids, phenols,
coumarins, tannins, and saponins (
Kacem et al., 2015). Ethanol extracts reveal stronger
antioxidant and antimicrobial activities (1951562 mg/mL) compared to methanol and
methanol/water extracts (
Kacem et al., 2015).
76 2. Plants used in Lebanon and the Middle East as Antimicrobials
Medicinal Plants as Anti-infectives
Rosaceae
Rosa damascena
Rosa damascena Mill. or “Ward jouri” is a shrub from the Rosaceae family. Their roses
have important economic benefits as garden plants, fragrances (from rose petals), and fla-
vorings. R. damascena is commonly used in Lebanon in different traditional culinary pre-
parations or beverages such as rose water or “Maward,” rose syrup, rose jelly, and jam.
Rose dried buds are used as herbal teas and dried rose petals are added on Arabic sweets
or in combination with other local herbs in cooking (
Najem, El Beyrouthy, Wakim, Neema,
& Ouaini, 2011
). R. damascena has different medicinal benefits according to traditional
Lebanese folk medicine for its antimicrobial, carminative, and antioxidant activities
(
Arido
˘
gan et al., 2002; Basim & Basim, 2003; Ozkan, Sagdic, Baydar, & Baydar, 2004).
When applied topically it is known for its antirheumatic activity and its effect against con-
junctivitis and dermatitis (
El Beyrouthy et al., 2008; El Beyrouthy, 2008). Its essential oils
are also known for their applications in perfumery, aromatherapy, and cosmetics (
O
¨
zel,
Go
¨
˘
gu
¨
¸s, & Lewis, 2006
). It is one of the most expensive oils due to the low oil content in
the plant. Although R. damascena has been known for a long time in Lebanon, its geo-
graphical origin is believed to be from Damscas and hence the name “Damask rose”
(
Gault & Synge, 1971). The oil from Damask rose in Lebanon has a different composition
than that from different countries and this increases its value. It has a higher percentage of
monoterpene alcohols that contribute to its aroma (such as β-phenylethanol, citronellol,
geraniol, nerol, and linalool) and lower quantities of hydrocarbons as seen in different
Lebanese cultivars (
Bayrak & Akgu
¨
l, 1994; Najem et al., 2011).
Essential oils from R. damascena exhibit strong antimicrobial activities (
Kumar, Bhandari,
Singh, & Bari, 2009; Mileva, Kusovski, Krastev, Dobreva, & Galabov, 2014; Moein,
Zomorodian, Almasi, Pakshir, & Zarshenas, 2017; Shohayeb, Abdel-Hameed, Bazaid, &
Maghrabi, 2014; Yi, Sun, Bao, Ma, & Sun, 2019
). Further fractionation of these oils through
molecular distillation also yields fractions with strong antibacterial (0.6251.25 mg/mL)
activity against S. aureus, B. subtilis, E. coli, and P. aeruginosa and antifungal (6.2512.5 mg/
mL) activities against A. niger, Rhizopus nigricans, and Blastocladia pringsheimii (
Yi et al.,
2019). The potential antimicrobial compounds are mainly β-phenylethanol, linalool, citro-
nellol, geraniol, eugenol, and methyl eugenol (
Yi et al., 2019). Methanol R. damascena
extracts exhibit antimicrobial activity (MIC 2 mg/mL) against Propionibacterium acnes
(
Azimi, Fallah-Tafti, Khakshur, & Abdollahi, 2012; Tsai, Tsai, Wu, Tseng, & Tsai, 2010).
Conclusion
The main plants used in traditional medicine in Lebanon as antimicrobials are summa-
rized in
Table 2.1.
Methods used for the table: Information in the table is obtained from the ethnopharma-
cological work of Marc Beyrouthy (200420). All voucher specimens of the species are
deposited at the Herbarium of the Faculty of Agronomy of the Holy Spirit University of
Kaslik (Lebanon). The results are recorded in a synoptic table. In the inventory, the fami-
lies and the species within these families are listed in alphabetical order. The information
77Conclusion
Medicinal Plants as Anti-infectives
TABLE 2.1 List of traditional Lebanese medicinal plants.
Voucher Scientific name Vernacular name Origin Part used
Traditional
medicinal
indication
Preparation
(I 5 internal use;
E 5 external use)
Amaryllidaceae
MNC052 Allium cepa Linn. Basal Cultivated Bulb Antiseptic E: local application
Fresh
leaves
Antiseptic I: eaten alone or mixed
with other salads
MNC075 Allium sativum Linn. Toum Cultivated Bulb,
Leaves
Antimicrobial,
antiseptic,
antifungal
I: consumed fresh or as
an infusion
Anacardiaceae
MNU472 Pistacia lentiscus Linn. Sareys, Mastiq, Botom Indigenous Aerial
parts
Antimicrobial E: decoction and local
application in the form
of a compress
Apiaceae
MNU621 Apium graveolens Linn. Al-karfass, Krafs, Krafs
barri, Chabatbat
Indigenous,
Cultivated and
imported
Fruit Antiseptic I: Infusion or decoction
MNU618 Prangos asperula Boiss. Farsh-al-dabbeh, Farsh-el-
dabo’
Endemic of
Lebanon and
Syria
Aerial
parts
Antimicrobial,
antifungal
I: decoction
Asteraceae
MNV401 Achillea biebersteinii
Afan.
Habbouk, Kaff mariam
Ghadda
Indigenous Flowering
parts
Antimicrobial,
antifungal
I
MNV400 Achillea falcata Linn. ’Ebaitaran, ’Ebaytaroun,
Kaisoun
Indigenous Flowering
parts
Antimicrobial,
antifungal
I: decoction: 60 g/l of
water
MNP103 Achillea millefolium
Linn.
Em Alef warka, Akhilia Imported Flowering
parts
Urinary
antiseptic
I: decoction: 60 g/L of
water
MNV375 Dittrichia viscosa Linn.
(Greuter) (Syn: Inula
viscosa (Linn.) Aiton)
Tayyoun Indigenous Roots,
Flowers,
Leaves,
Flowering
parts
Antiseptic I: decoction
Fresh
leaves
Antimicrobial E: direct application of
freshly crushed leaves
MNV418 Matricaria aurea (Linn.)
Schultz Bip.
Babounej, Babounej ma’r
¯
uf Indigenous Leaves,
Flowers
Antimicrobial I: infusion, one spoon in
a cup of water three
times a day
MNV417 Matricaria recutita
(Linn.) Rauschert (Syn:
M. chamomilla L.)
Babounej, Babounej
’almani
Indigenous,
cultivated and
imported
Flowering
heads
Antimicrobial E: poultice and steam
inhalation
Antifungal E: steam inhalation
Berberidaceae
MNU002 Berberis libanotica C. K.
Schneider
Barbaris, Shelsh-al-
barbaris (Roots)
Endemic of
Lebanon and
Syria
Roots Antifungal I: decoction
(Continued)
78 2. Plants used in Lebanon and the Middle East as Antimicrobials
Medicinal Plants as Anti-infectives
TABLE 2.1 (Continued)
Voucher Scientific name Vernacular name Origin Part used
Traditional
medicinal
indication
Preparation
(I 5 internal use;
E 5 external use)
Brassicaceae
MNP002 Anastatica hierochuntica
Linn.
Kaff mariam Imported Entire
plant
Antiseptic E: decoction in the form
of a poultice
MNU079 Capparis spinosa Linn. Al koubbar, Kabbar,
Halak-es-sit
Indigenous Flowering
buds
Antiseptic I
Flowering
buds,
Roots
Renal
antiseptic
I
Cannabaceae
MNP004 Humulus lupulus Linn. Hachichat-al-dinar,
Aljounjel
Cultivated and
imported
Flowering
buds and
entire
plant
Antiseptic,
antimicrobial
I: decoction
Caryophyllaceae
MNP051 Saponaria officinalis
Linn.
Al sabouniyya, ’Ork-al-
halawa, ’Osloj
Cultivated and
imported
Leaves Antiseptic E: juice used as a
compress
Cistaceae
MNU550a Cistus creticus Linn. Ghabra, Ghe
´
bre
´
Indigenous Leaves Antimicrobial E: local application of
crushed leaves
MNU550b Cistus salviifolius Linn. Ghabra, Ghe
´
bre
´
Indigenous Leaves Antimicrobial E: local application of
crushed leaves
Cucurbitaceae
MNV348 Citrullus colocynthis Linn.
(Schrad.)
Hanzal, Al ’alkam, Handal Indigenous and
imported
Seeds and
fruits
Antiseptic,
antifungal
E: feet in the decoction
MNV347 Ecballium elaterium
(Linn.) A. Rich.
Kit-el-hmar, Khiar-al-
hmar, Me’te
´
-el-baghel,
Kisa’-el-hmar
Indigenous Mature
fruit
Antiseptic E: nasal instillation of a
few drops of fresh juice
sprayed from ripe fruit
Cupressaceae
MNI018 Juniperus excelsa M.B. Lezzab Indigenous Cones Antiseptic,
antifungal
E: bath with macerate
Ericaceae
MNP008 Arctostaphylos uva-ursi
(Linn.) Spreng.
Habb ‘enab-al-debb Imported Seeds Urinary
antiseptic
I: decoction and drink
after meals for 2 weeks
a cup in the morning
and in the evening
Fabaceae
MNU227a Spartium junceum Linn. Sitt khadije
´
, Lisan-el-
’asfour, Wazlan
Indigenous Flowers Antiseptic I: infusion
Fagaceae
MNI367 Quercus coccifera Linn.
(Syn: Q. calliprinos
Webb)
Balllout, Sendayan, Shelsh-
el-seendiane (Roots)
Indigenous Entire
plant
Antiseptic E: decoction in gargle,
baths
(Continued)
79Conclusion
Medicinal Plants as Anti-infectives
TABLE 2.1 (Continued)
Voucher Scientific name Vernacular name Origin Part used
Traditional
medicinal
indication
Preparation
(I 5 internal use;
E 5 external use)
MNI360 Quercus infectoria
Olivier
’Afos Indigenous Gale Antiseptic E: decoction in gargle,
baths
Hypericaceae
MNU527 Hypericum lanuginosum
Lam.
D
¯
azi soufi, Hashishat-al-
qalb
Endemic
(Lebanon, Syria,
Sinai, Jordan,
Egypt, Cyprus,
Palestine)
Leaves,
Flowers
Antifungal I: maceration
MNU528 Hypericum perforatum
Linn.
Hioufa raykoune,
Hachichat-al-qalb, ’Eshbat
al taloul
Indigenous Flowering
parts
Antiseptic E: maceration in olive
oil for 15 days and use
the maceration in the
form of a compress
Lamiaceae
MNV191a Coridothymus capitatus
(Linn.) Reichenb. fil
Za’atar farisi, Za’atar
’assal, Za’atar
Indigenous Flowering
tops
Urinary
antiseptic
I: Infusion or decoction
on an empty stomach:
one cup in the morning
MNV180 Cyclotrichium
origanifolium (Labill.)
Manden. & Scheng
(Syn: Calamintha
origanifolia (Labill.)
Boiss.)
Na’ana’eyn, Hashishat-al-
bahsa, Hashishat-al-
bouhaiss, Hashishat-al-
jabal, Hashishat-al-
daght, Hashishat-al-bhis
Endemic
(Asiatic Turkey,
Lebanon)
Flowering
tops
Antimicrobial,
antifungal
I
MNC121 Lavandula angustifolia
Mill.
Khuzama, Lawanda Cultivated and
imported
Flowering
tops
Antiseptic I: infusion
MNV114 Lavandula stoechas Linn. Astakhoudos, Khuzama
Shih
Indigenous Flowering
tops
Antiseptic I: infusion
MNV116 Marrubium vulgare
Linn.
Gbayri, ’Eshbat-al-kalb,
Frasioun
Indigenous Flowering
tops
Antiseptic I: infusion
MNV187 Origanum ehrenbergii
Boiss.
Al zouwayba’a, Za’atar-al-
snawbar, Za’atar jordi,
Za’aitri
Endemic of
Lebanon
Flowering
tops
Antimicrobial E: infusion
MNV185 Origanum libanoticum
Boiss.
Za’atar lebnan Endemic of
Lebanon
Flowering
parts
Antimicrobial E: infusion
MNP118 Origanum majorana
Linn.
Mardakouch Cultivated Leaves Antiseptic I: edible
Flowering
parts
Antimicrobial I: infusion
Flowering
parts
Antiseptic I: decoction
MNV188 Origanum syriacum
Linn.
Zouba’, Za’atar Indigenous Flowering
parts
Antiseptic I: decoction mixed with
honey: two cups/day
Leaves Antiseptic I: infusion: 20 g/L
(Continued)
80 2. Plants used in Lebanon and the Middle East as Antimicrobials
Medicinal Plants as Anti-infectives
TABLE 2.1 (Continued)
Voucher Scientific name Vernacular name Origin Part used
Traditional
medicinal
indication
Preparation
(I 5 internal use;
E 5 external use)
MNV132 Phlomis syriaca Boiss. Mossays, ’Ozzayra souriye
´
Endemic
(Asiatic Turkey,
Palestine,
Jordan,
Lebanon, Syria)
Flowering
parts
Antifungal,
antimicrobial
I: decoction
MNV154 Rosmarinus officinalis
Linn.
Eklil-al-jabal, Hasa-al-b
¯
an,
Nada-al-bahr
Indigenous,
cultivated and
imported
Flowering
parts,
Leaves,
Stems
Antifungal,
antiseptic
I: decoction or drink a
cup of coffee from the
distilled water of the
flowering plant once a
day
MNV159 Salvia fruticosa Mill. Aiza’an, Kassiin, ’Ouaisse
´
,
Maryamiyye
´
Indigenous,
Cultivated and
imported
Flowering
parts,
Leaves
Antimicrobial,
antiseptic
I: distilled sage water:
three drops 1 one spoon
of honey
MNV173 Satureja cuneifolia Ten. Eshabat-el-wasab, Za’atar
farisi
Indigenous Aerial
parts,
Stems
Antifungal,
antimicrobial
I: decoction
MNV175a Satureja myrtifolia
(Boiss. & Hohen.)
Greuter & Burdet (Syn:
Micromeria myrtifolia
Boiss. & Hohen.)
Zoufa Indigenous Flowering
parts,
Leaves
Antiseptic E: infusion
MNV173a Satureja thymbra Linn. Za’atar khlat, Za’atar bou
khlayt, Za’atar rumi,
Za’atar franji, Za’atar-al-
hamir, Za’atar
Indigenous Flowering
parts
Antiseptic,
antimicrobial,
antifungal
I: infusion and essential
oil
MNV191 Thymbra spicata Linn. Za’atar khlat, Za’atar bou
khlayt, Za’atar
Indigenous Flowering
parts
Antimicrobial,
antifungal
I: infusion and essential
oil
MNV190a Thymus syriacus Boiss. Za’atar Indigenous Aerial
parts
Antiseptic,
antimicrobial
I: infusion
MNV181a Ziziphora clinopodioides
Lam. (Syn: Z. canescens
Benth.)
Na’na’a jordi Indigenous Flowering
parts
Antiseptic,
antimicrobial
I: infusion
MNV181 Ziziphora capitata Linn.
subsp. orientalis Sam.
ex Rech
Na’na’ jordi, Hashishat
al’alk
Indigenous Flowering
parts
Antiseptic,
antimicrobial
I: infusion
Lauraceae
MNU001 Laurus nobilis Linn. Al ghar, Chajarat-al-rand Indigenous
cultivated and
imported
Leaves Antimicrobial I: infusion of two leaves
with a little orange pulp
in 200 mL of water
Lythraceae
MNP053 Lawsonia inermis Roxb. He
´
nne
´
, Henna Imported Crushed
leaves
Antiseptic E: maceration in olive
oil and local application
MNP018 Punica granatum Linn. Roumman Cultivated and
imported
Fruit rind Antimicrobial I: sweetened infusion
with honey
(Continued)
81Conclusion
Medicinal Plants as Anti-infectives
TABLE 2.1 (Continued)
Voucher Scientific name Vernacular name Origin Part used
Traditional
medicinal
indication
Preparation
(I 5 internal use;
E 5 external use)
Meliaceae
MNC469 Melia azedarach Linn. Zanzalakht Cultivated Seeds Antiseptic E: oil in local
application
Myrtaceae
MNC028 Eucalyptus globulus
Labill.
Kina, Al Eucalyptous Cultivated Leaves Antiseptic,
antimicrobial
E: decoction and
inhalation of vapors
MNU563 Myrtus communis Linn. Houmblass, Heblass, Ass,
Hounblass, Rihan
Indigenous Leaves,
Fruit
Antiseptic I: Infusion
MNP021 Syzygium aromaticum
(Linn.) Merr. & L.M.
Perry
Kebech kronfol Imported Fruit Antiseptic,
antifungal
E: Mouthwashes: three
drops of essential oil
diluted in a little alcohol
and then added a glass
of water
Myristicaceae
MNP042 Myristica fragrans
Houtt.
Jawazat-al-tib, Besbas Imported Fruit Antiseptic E and I: infusion
Oleaceae
MNV019 Olea europaea Linn. Zaytoun Cultivated Leaves Antiseptic I: decoction or infusion,
E: cataplasme
Oxalidaceae
MNU433 Oxalis corniculata Linn. Hommayda Indigenous Flowering
parts
Antimicrobial I
Poaceae
MNC191 Cymbopogon citratus
(DC) Stapf.
Shay akhdar Cultivated and
imported
Leaves Antiseptic E: decoction and
inhalation of vapors,
I: infusion
Papaveraceae
MNV064 Papaver rhoeas Linn. Chakkik ahmar, Chakaik-
al-no’man, Fuaisseh,
Kechkhach
Indigenous Flowers,
Seeds,
Latex
Antiseptic I: aqueous decoction of
the petals for 1 h,
infusion (5%), E: local
application of the latex
MNV065 Papaver umbonatum
Boiss. (Syn: P. syriacum
Boiss. et Bl.)
Kechkhach Endemic
(Palestine,
Jordan, Lebanon
and Syria)
Flowers Antiseptic I: decoction
Pinaceae
MNI015a Cedrus libani A.
Richard
Arez, Arez lebnan Endemic
(Asiatic Turkey,
Syria, Lebanon,
Cyprus,
Morocco,
Algeria)
Wood Antimicrobial E: decoction and local
application
(Continued)
82 2. Plants used in Lebanon and the Middle East as Antimicrobials
Medicinal Plants as Anti-infectives
TABLE 2.1 (Continued)
Voucher Scientific name Vernacular name Origin Part used
Traditional
medicinal
indication
Preparation
(I 5 internal use;
E 5 external use)
MNI016 Pinus halepensis Mill.
subsp. brutia (Ten.) E.
Murray (Syn: P. brutia
Ten.)
Snoubar barri Indigenous Leaves,
Stems
Antiseptic E: gargle with decoction
in diluted vinegar
Polygonaceae
MNP028 Rheum officinale Baill. Rawand Cultivated and
imported
Rhizome
and Roots
Antiseptic I: decoction or
maceration in cold
water for one day, drink
three times a day until
improvement
MNI406 Rheum ribes Linn. Cherch-al-ribes, Roubass,
Chelch-al-ribes
Indigenous Rhizome Antimicrobial I: decoction and drink
the decoction on an
empty stomach. Soak
overnight, filter, and
drink
Portulacaceae
MNI450 Portulaca oleracea Linn. Bakkle
´
, Farfhine Indigenous and
cultivated
Seeds Antimicrobial,
antiseptic
I: decoction for 10 min
Ranunculaceae
MNU054 Clematis cirrhosa Linn. Mar’
¯
an, Habl misk
¯
ı, Mal’
¯
a
‘anamiyyah
Indigenous Leaves,
Roots
Antiseptic E: decoction, 40 g/L of
water for 20 min and
poultice
MNP094 Nigella sativa Linn. Habbat-al-baraka, Habba-
al-sawda, Chouniz
Imported Seeds Antiseptic I: decoction or infusion,
mixed with honey and
absorbed in the
morning on an empty
stomach
Rosaceae
MNC071 Rosa damascena Mill. Ward jouri Cultivated and
naturalized
Essential
oils
Antimicrobial I
Rutaceae
MNU461 Ruta chalepensis Linn.
(Syn: R. chalepensis
Linn. subsp. bracteosa
(DC.) Batt.)
Khouft, Sahdab Indigenous Flowering
parts,
Leaves
Antimicrobial I and E: infusion
Salicaceae
MNI350 Salix alba Linn. Safsaf, Safsaf abiad, ’Oud-
el-ma’, ’Oud libnani
Indigenous and
cultivated
Bark Antiseptic I and E: infusion
MNI350a Salix libani
Bornm. Safsaf libnani Endemic
(Amanus,
Lebanon, Syria)
Bark Antiseptic I and E: decoction
Santalaceae
MNP005 Santalum album Linn. Sandal abyad, Sandal,
Khamia-el-bandal
Imported Essential
oils
Antiseptic E: fumigation and
inhalation
83Conclusion
Medicinal Plants as Anti-infectives