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A number of chemical fingerprinting studies report essential oil of clove as being
adulterated with inferior quality vegetables and mineral oils. For example,
Bounaas
et al. (2018)
used Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy method to analyze the
quality of clove essential oil and revealed that the commercial samples were diluted
with vegetables and mineral oils. Furthermore,
Bruno et al. (2019) used the DNA meta-
barcoding method and analyzed food products that contain S. aromaticum (two pro-
ducts) as an ingredient and revealed that none of the products contained S. aromaticum
as labeled.
Andrographis paniculata—antimicrobial plant
Due to its extremely bitter taste, Andrographis paniculata (Burm.f.) Nees (Acanthaceae)
is often referred as “the king of bitters,” and is used as a bitter tonic in Ayurvedic and
other traditionally known health-care systems of India and many other Asian countries.
The genus Andrographis comprises 40 species, and about 26 species of Andrographis
are reported to occur in India (
Neeraja et al., 2015). Traditionally, A. paniculata is used
to treat stomachaches, inflammation, pyrexia, intermittent fevers, as an antidote for
snakebite and poisonous stings of some insects, and to treat dyspepsia, influenza, dysen-
tery, malaria, and respiratory infections (
Hossain, Urbi, Sule, & Rahman, 2014;
Okhuarobo et al., 2014
). Andrographolide (structurally a labdane diterpenoid) is the
major bitter-tasting secondary metabolite and bioactive constituent, reported to have a
broad range of pharmacological effects including antidiarrheal, antihepatitis, anti-HIV,
antimicrobial, antimalarial, cardiovascular, cytotoxic, hepatoprotective, a nd im munosti-
mulatory activities, as well as the effect on sexual dysfunctions (
Hossain et al., 2014;
Okhuarobo et al., 2014
).
The whole plant of A. paniculata is collected in preflowering stages and when dried, it
constitutes the herbal drug. The trade name of A. paniculata in India is Kalmegh and
Nilavembu, and the trade demand for Kalmegh for the year 201415 was approximately
2000 MT (
Goraya & Ved, 2017). In the wild, the species has been assessed as vulnerable
and also reported to be widely cultivated in India. Due to the species complexity, other
species of Andrographis such as A. alata (Vahl) Nees, A. lineata Nees, A. glandulosa Nee s,
A. echioides (L.) Nees, A. serpyllifolia (Vahl) Wight, A. macrobotrys Nees, A. neesiana Wight,
A. elongata (Vahl) T. Anderson, A. nallamalayana J.L. Ellis, and A. wightiana Arn. ex Nees
are used as substitutes and adulterants and are being extensively used in folk medicine
(
Alagesa Boopathi & Andrographis, 2000; Arolla, Cherukupalli, Khareedu, & Vudem,
2015
). Santhosh Kumar et al. (2018) utilized DNA barcoding method to authenticate the
raw herbal drugs traded as Kalmegh (six samples) in India and reported no adulteration.
Similarly,
Osathanunkul et al. (2016) developed high resolution melting coupled with
DNA barcoding method to identify A. paniculata herbal products available in markets in
Thailand. In this study, rbcL DNA barcode loci were used to authenticate 10 commercial
herbal products and it was found that all the tested herbal products melting curves pro-
files were similar to A. paniculata which indicated that all tested products contained the
correct species as labeled (
Osathanunkul et al., 2016). However, another study reported
the presence of Rhinacanthus nasutus (L.) Kurzin three tested products out of 15 products
(
Osathanunkul, Madesis, & De Boer, 2015).
374 11. Value chains and DNA barcoding for the identification of antiinfective medicinal plants
Medicinal Plants as Anti-infectives
Future perspectives
Currently, the World Health Organization guidelines for assessing the quality of
herbal medicines mainly include the methods that ensure the identity and safety of
the raw plant materials by screening a specified chemical marker compound, and by
checking the m icrobiological purity of the herbal products. Most herbal monographs
specify the use of macroscopic and microscopic characterization, phytochemistry-based
analysis of specifi c marker compounds, assays for toxic constituents such as heavy
metals, and the use of different chromatog raphic approaches to detect adulteration.
The appropriate utilization of these quality assurance methods, viz., morphological,
microscopy, phytochemistry, and DNA-based methods for the identification of medicinal
plants heavily depend on various stages of the value chain and are used on the basis
of a case-by-case evaluation, starting from theplantmaterialharvest,storage,andto
the finished herbal products. Though British Pharmacopeia is one of the first to
publish a specific methods section on DNA barcoding that creates a framework for com-
pliance of DNA barcoding with regulatory re quirements, DNA barcoding and metabar-
coding are not yet widespread validated methods for use in the regulatory context of
quality control. A number of studies support its usefulness for herbal product authenti-
cation and pharmacovigilance either as a standard method or as a complementary
method.
In this chapter, we reviewed the development of DNA barcoding in a few selected anti-
infective plants. As a widely accepted method, DNA barcoding has played an important
role in the classification of medicinal plants, the identification of substitutes/adulterants,
and the regulation of the herbal products market. The presence of adulterants and substi-
tutes may be explained by various factors, including but not limited to the deliberate adul-
teration and unintentional substitution that may occur from the early stage of the supply
chain of medicinal plants (i.e., cultivation, transport, and storage), to the manufacturing
process and the commercialization of the final products. It was evident that the antiinfec-
tive plants categorized under any threat status were reported to be more adulterated and
substituted. The existing technical means can effectively identify plant raw materials but
for some processed products (e.g., tablets, pills, oral liquids, and injections, etc.), there is
still a lack of effective, rapid, and standardized identification methods up to now, espe-
cially for the complex herbal products.
In the past, the development of DNA barcoding has been primarily focused on the
selection of c andidate DNA ma rkers and the development of sequence databases.
Although universal plant DNA barcodes have not yet been chosen, most studies utilize
the four markers rbcL, matK, trnH-psbA, and nr-ITS, and the international DNA bar-
code database is maintained by BOLD in Canada (
http://www.boldsystems.org/).
Apart from the identification of specific DNA barcode markers for plants, the chloro-
plast genomes based identification of plants is being developed. Furthermore, the next
and third-generation sequencing technologies have been sophisticated, and the research
of chloroplast (or plastid) genomics of medical plants is underway. In short, DNA bar-
coding has a broad application in the field of pharmacovigilance and it will certainly
help to assure the safety, quality, and efficacy of traditional medicines in countries
around the globe.
375Future perspectives
Medicinal Plants as Anti-infectives
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CHAPTER
12
Fungal endophytes: a source of
antibacterial and antiparasitic
compounds
Romina Pacheco
1
, Sergio Ortiz
1,2
, Mohamed Haddad
1
and
Marieke Vansteelandt
1
1
UMR 152 PharmaDev, Univers ite
´
de Toulouse, IRD, UPS, Toulouse, France
2
UMR 7200
Laboratoire d’Innovation The
´
rapeutique, Universite
´
de Strasbourg, CNRS, Strasbourg Drug
Discovery and Development Institute (IMS), Illkirch-Graffenstaden, France
Introduction
Current situation of microbial infections
The golden era of the antibiotic occurred between the early 1930s and late 1960s, a
period where most of the new classes of drugs were discovered. This period was followed
by an important decline in drug discovery rate along with the increase and emergence of
resistant microbes, including bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites (
Aminov, 2010). In
2019 the WHO listed 32 antibiotics in clinical development that were addressed to the list
of priority pathogens, of which only six were considered innovative. Antimicrobial resis-
tance affects health care systems from all countries found in any level of development,
generating a great economic burden while other medical procedures become more risky.
Protozoal diseases such as malaria (Plasmodium spp.), leishmaniasis (Leishmania spp.),
and trypanosomiasis (Trypanosoma spp.) affect mainly tropical and subtropical regions
with great health and economic impacts worldwide. These unicellular eukaryotic organ-
isms are free-living organisms and their developmental stages include intracellular stages
within the host cell or extracellular stages in body fluids, hollow organs, or between cells
in the interstitial space. Additionally, they can possess dormant forms that help them to
survive under extreme conditions over a long period of time. Their transmission is mainly
vector-borne but also fecaloral or predatorprey transmission.
383
Medicinal Plants as Anti-infectives
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-90999-0.00006-9 Copyright © 2022 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.