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CHAPTER
2
Plants used in Lebanon and the
Middle East as Antimicrobials
Roula M. Abdel-Massih
1
and Marc El Beyrouthy
2
1
Department of Biology, Faculty of Arts and Sciences, University of Balamand, El-Koura,
Lebanon
2
Department of Agricultural Sciences, Holy Spirit University of Kaslik, Beirut,
Lebanon
Introduction: overview on medi cinal plants and their traditional uses as
antimicrobials in Lebanon
The overuse or misuse of antimicrobial agents or food preservatives and the lack of
development of new drugs in the pharmaceutical industry led to a growing incidence of
microbial resistance worldwide. Around 80% of antibiotics in the US are used as growth
supplements or to prevent infection in livestock and hence the spread of resistance to
humans (
Bartlett, Gilbert, & Spellberg, 2013). Annual deaths due to antimicrobial resis-
tance continue to increase worldwide and are projected to be over 10 million by 2050
(
O’Neill, 2016). There is a current clear trend to turn to nature and plants as a safe alterna-
tive for new antimicrobial agents.
Medicinal plants have been used for centuries as remedies for different human diseases
and this interest has been revived due to problems associated with resistance to antibio-
tics. Plants are being screened worldwide in search for new effective antimicrobial com-
pounds. It is estimated that there are at least 250,000 species of plants in the world today
(
Cowan, 1999) and it has long been known that the highly heterogeneous soil and climati c
conditions of the Mediterranean area have resulted in a great diversity of medicinal
plants in the region (
Daglia, 2012; Kutlu, 2003; Pan et al., 2014; Yasar, Sagdic, & Kisioglu,
2005
). Previous reports suggest that som e plant extracts possess beneficial biolo gical
effects, including antimicrobial properties (
Abdel-Massih, Abdou, Baydoun, & Daoud,
2010; Correia et al., 2004; Daoud, Abdo, & Abdel-Massih, 2011; Ohsaki, Takashima, Chiba,
& Kawamura, 1999; Trouillas et al., 2003
). Some of these activities have been attributed to
the action of phenolics (
Abi-Khattar et al., 2019; Korukluoglu, Sahan, Yigit, & Ozer, 2008),
59
Medicinal Plants as Anti-infectives
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-90999-0.00012-4 Copyright © 2022 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
terpenoids, alkaloids, flavonoids (Puupponen-Pimia
¨
et al., 2001), pectins (Daoud, Sura, &
Abdel-Massih, 2013; Menshikov et al., 1997
), and other plant polymers that help plants to
respond against biotic or abiotic stresses (
Simo
˜
es, Bennett, & Rosa, 2009).
The Mediterranean flora is highly diverse with around 25,000 plant species (10% of
higher plants) many of which are endemic to the region (
Baydoun, Chalak, Dalleh, &
Arnold, 2015; Medail & Quezel, 1999
). Ten plant biodiversity hotspots have been identified
in the Mediterranean with Lebanon as one of them (
Medail & Quezel, 1999). Lebanon is a
small country of 10,452 km
2
in the Middle East situated at the hinge of three continents:
Asia, Europe, and Africa. It stretches along the eastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea and
has a rectangular shape with its length greater than its width. Two mountain ranges paral-
lel to the coast, Mount Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon, are spread over the length of the coun-
try and separated by a plain, the Bekaa Valley. Although Lebanon is a relatively small
Mediterranean country, it consists of different geographic territories that allow a variety of
natural environments and habitats. The combination of climate and geological variation
allows plant diversity in the region (
Mouterde, 1966, 1970, 1983). Relative to its size,
Lebanon hosts one of the highest densities of plant diversity in the Mediterranean basin
with around 3000 species, 92 of which are endemic to Lebanon (
Ministry of Agriculture-
Lebanon, 1996
). Many indigenous and endemic species are threatened due to climate
effects, rapid urban expansion, and overgrazing (
Bou Dagher-Kharrat, El Zein, & Rouhan,
2018
) (Fig. 2.1).
The narrow coastal plain and lower part of the Lebanese mountains correspond to the
hot Mediterranean area and are rich in carob, pistachio, and myrtle. Higher parts of
Mount Lebanon are rich in pines, oaks, shrubs, and herbaceous plants. In some specific
areas at an altitude of 1400 m, cedar trees grow in addition to some trees and shrubs such
as Berberis libanotica Ehrenb. ex C.K.Schneid., Lonicera nummulariifolia Juab. & Spach., and
Quercus brantii Lindl. (
Hajar, Haı
¨
dar-Boustani, Khater, & Cheddadi, 2010). However,
plants adapted to extreme conditions, icy in winter and terribly arid in summer, grow in
Northeast of Bekaa (
Fahed, 2016; Medail & Quezel, 1999).
Lebanon is rich in many aromatic or medicinal plants that are widely used in cooking,
as herbal tea mixtures, or for treatment of various illnesses (especially in rural areas) (
El
Beyrouthy, 2009
). Around 529 species (102 families) are traditionally used as medicinal
plants many of which have antimicrobial properties (
El Beyrouthy, Arnold, Delelis-
Dusollier, & Dupont, 2008
). Many Lebanese endemic species were used traditionally in
folk medicine for their antimicrobial properties including B. libanotica, Origanum libanoti-
cum Boiss., Lactuca triquetra (Labill.) Boiss., Ferula elaeochytris Korovin, Prangos asperula
Boiss., Origanum ehrenbergii Boiss., Marrubium globosum Montbr. & Auch. ex Benth. ssp.
libanoticum Boiss. Other traditional uses involved extracting the essential oils from plants
for different biological applications. Common essential oils are recognized for their broad-
spectrum antimicrobial activity at concentrations of 1128 μg/mL such as oils of basil
(
Moghaddam, Shayegh, Mikaili, & Sharaf, 2011), cinnamon (Ooi et al., 2006), coriander
(
Galva
˜
o et al., 2012), thyme (C¸etin, C¸ akmakc¸i, & C¸ akmakc¸i, 2011), oregano (C¸ etin et al.,
2011
), and lemongrass (Singh, Singh, Singh, & Ebibeni, 2011). The oxygenated form of ter-
penes (
Dorman & Deans, 2000), phenolic compounds, or alcohols isolated from plants are
also known for their strong antimicrobial activities (
Giweli, D
ˇ
zamic, Sokovic, Ristic, &
Marin, 2012; Kordali et al., 2008; Nostro et al., 2004
).
60 2. Plants used in Lebanon and the Middle East as Antimicrobials
Medicinal Plants as Anti-infectives
FIGURE 2.1 Map of Lebanon. Source: Wikimedia Commons. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Lebanon_Base_Map.
png.
61Introduction: overview on medicinal plants and their traditional uses as antimicrobials in Lebanon
Medicinal Plants as Anti-infectives
Lebanese plants with antimicrobial activity
Different plant families contribute to the rich flora in Lebanon in particular or to the
Mediterranean region in general. They are also well known through folk medicine or
tested experimentally for their antimicrobial activity (
Fig. 2.2).
Amaryllidaceae
Allium cepa/Allium sativum
Allium cepa L. (onion) and Allium sativum L. (garlic) are two plants from the
Amaryllidaceae family that are known for their traditional medicinal effects. The bulbs of
A. cepa are usually used raw, as decoction, or cooked for the treatment of wou nds, infec-
tions, bronchitis, inflammation, constipation, hair loss, and rheumatism (
Eddouks, Ajebli,
& Hebi, 2017
). A. cepa is traditionally used in many countries such as Algeria, Albania,
Cyprus, Italy, and Spain for the treatment of skin, respiratory, and kidney disorders
(
Gonza
´
lez-Tejero et al., 2008). It is also used in Palestine against diabetes (Ali-Shtayeh,
Jamous, & Jamous, 2012; Miara et al., 2019
). Onion skin extracts, which are considered
as waste, exhibit high antimicrobial activity against different bacteria (Bacillus cereus,
Pseudomonas fluorescens, and Escherichia coli) and fungi (Penicillium cyclopium, Trichoderma
viride, and Aspergillus niger)(
Ahiabor, Gordon, Ayittey, & Agyare, 2016). Polyphenols
extracted from the skin or the edible part of A. cepa exhibit both antimicrobial and antibio-
film activities (
Lee et al., 2013;
ˇ
Skerget, Majheni
ˇ
e, Bezjak, & Knez, 2009); however, they can
be toxic to animals if the amount ingested is more than 0.5% of their bodyweight (
Cope,
2005
). Sharma, Mahato, and Lee (2018) found that the amount of total phenolics and
FIGURE 2.2 Selected endemic Lebanese medicinal plants. (A) Berberis libanotica, (B) Cedrus libani,
(C) Cyclotrichium origanifolium, (D) Origanum ehrenbergii, (E) Origanum libanoticum, (F) Prangos asperula.
62 2. Plants used in Lebanon and the Middle East as Antimicrobials
Medicinal Plants as Anti-infectives
flavonoids (especially quercetin) in onion increases after 3 months of storage that might
contribute to higher antioxidant and antimicrobial activity. Red onions show stronger anti-
biofilm and antimicrobial activity compared to yellow onions. White onions exhibit negli-
gible antimicrobial activity (
Sharma et al., 2018).
Allium sativum L. is a perennial flowering plant with a pungent smell or aroma and
strong diverse flavors. Garlic bulbs, raw or prepared through decoction or maceration
have antiseptic, antiinflammatory, antispasmodic, anticoagulant, or hypotensive activity.
They are traditionally used against influenza, intestinal parasites, respiratory diseases, ear
and eye diseases, hemorrhoids, diabetes, hypertension, kidney disorders, and dandruff
(
Miara, Hammou, & Aoul, 2013). Different functions have been attributed to its organo-
sulfur compounds that are formed during garlic processing. The various garlic
preparations include raw or cooked, fresh or aged, oil or juice, and each with different
pharmacological effects (
Habtemariam, 2019). Many natural spices have strong antibacte-
rial activity against multiple-drug-resistant clinical pathogens.
Karuppiah and Rajaram
(2012)
tested the activity of the ethanolic extract of A. sativum and Zingiber officinale Roscoe
(ginger) against two Gram-positive and five Gram-negative multidrug resistant bacteria.
Garlic exhibited the highest inhibition zone (19.45 mm) and the lowest minimum inhibi-
tory concentration (MIC) 67.00 μg/mL against Pseudomonas aeruginosa. This antibacterial
activity is attributed to different compounds found in garlic cloves such as alliin (a non-
protein amino acid), ajoene, and diallyl sulfides (
Oosthuizen, Reid, & Lall, 2017). When
garlic is chopped or chewed, alliin mixes with the enzyme alliinase present in the bulb to
form allicin. Allicin is a widely studied bioactive component that is responsible for the
pungent smell. Aqueous garlic extract had an MIC of 80120 mg/mL and a minimum
bactericidal concentration (MBC) between 120 and 160 mg/mL using the zone inhibition
method. A toxicological study revealed that the extract was safe at a dose lower than
300 mg/kg (
Lawal et al., 2016).
Anacardiaceae
Pistacia species
Pistacia lentiscus L. (mastic tree) belongs to the Anacardiaceae family, commonly known
as sumac or cashew family. Anacardiaceae family consists of different genera that are
important economically such as sumac, mango, poison ivy, smoke tree, cashew, pistac hio,
and others. Genus Pistacia includes about 20 species (
Al-Saghir & Porter, 2012; Rauf et al.,
2017
) including P. lentiscus (from which plant mastic resin is derived), Pistacia vera L.
(known for its edible seeds, pistachios), Pistacia terebinthus L. (source of terebinth resin),
and Pistacia chinensis Bunge (grown as decorative tree, Chinese pistache). P. lentiscus are
mostly found in the Mediterranean areas and its aromatic resin (Mastic Gum) is mostly
cultivated on the Greek island of Chios (
Pachi et al., 2020). P. lentiscus was reported to
have antiinflammatory, antioxidative, neuroprotective, wound-healing, diuretic, antimicro-
bial, and anticancer effects (
Benhammou, Bekkara, & Panovska, 2008; Dimas, Pantazis, &
Ramanujam, 2012; Paraschos, Mitakou, & Skaltsounis, 2012; Rauf et al., 2017; Yemmen,
Landolsi, Ben Hamida, Me
´
graud, & Trabelsi Ayadi, 2017; Zorzan et al., 2019
). Mastic gum
is used traditionally in cosmetics, in oral hygiene, as spices, or as treatment for diabetes,
63Lebanese plants with antimicrobial activity
Medicinal Plants as Anti-infectives