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Файл:Практический английский язык для юристов = Practical English for Law Students. В 2 частях. Ч. 2. Учебное пособие
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school. Concision is key in law. Therefore, we recommend a short paragraph
which efficiently addresses an issue over a long exploration of many different issues.
Remember to use subheadings to provide structure to your writing. It
is a good idea to come up with your subheadings before you start writing
so that you have a structure to follow. The subheadings should act as a series of subtopics which reflect the arguments needed to substantiate your
thesis statement.
A well-structured and formatted law essay is essential for receiving
high marks. Here are some key elements that should be included:
1. Introduction:
The introduction should introduce the main arguments of the essay.
The first sentence or the hook should be attention-grabbing.
The introduction should provide concise information about the broader significance of the topic.
Include a thesis statement to explain the purpose of the essay.
It should lead into the body of the essay.
2. Body:
Each paragraph should have a clear topic sentence.
The paragraph should include supporting evidence and analysis.
The paragraphs should be logically connected.
3. Conclusion:
The conclusion should summarize the main arguments of the essay.
It should not introduce new information.
It should demonstrate the significance of the arguments.
4. Presenting your ideas.
In order to do well, you must also present your essay so that it reflects academic standards. This includes correct citation practices, subheadings, appropriate English vocabulary, correct grammar and spelling.
Examiners highly value closely edited and proofed work. First-year students commonly rely too much on passive constructions and embellished
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language. Good lawyers write in clear and concise English that is easily
understood. Let’s take a look at an example of a well-structured law essay
below.
A Sample of a Well-Structured Law Essay
Title: The Need for Reforming the Criminal Justice System.
Introduction.
The criminal justice system is a complex and multifaceted system
that involves multiple agencies, actors, and processes. The system is designed to maintain public safety and uphold the rule of law by investigating, prosecuting, and punishing criminal offenders. However, the criminal
justice system is not without its flaws. There is a growing consensus that
reform is needed to address issues such as overcriminalization, racial disparities, and mass incarceration. This essay will discuss the need for reforming the criminal justice system, the challenges facing the efforts, and potential solutions.
The Need for Reform.
The criminal justice system is facing significant challenges that require urgent attention. One of the most pressing issues is overcriminalization, which refers to the proliferation of criminal laws and regulations that
impose criminal penalties for minor offenses. Overcriminalization has resulted in an explosion of the prison population, with the United States having one of the highest incarceration rates in the world. Another major issue
facing the criminal justice system is racial disparities. Studies have shown
that people of color are disproportionately represented at every stage of the
criminal justice process, from arrest to sentencing. This has led to a widespread perception of unfairness and injustice in the system, eroding public
trust and confidence. Finally, the criminal justice system is facing a crisis
of legitimacy, with many people viewing it as ineffective and inefficient.
This has led to calls for reform that aim to increase accountability, transparency, and fairness.
Challenges Facing Reform.
Despite the urgent need for reform, the criminal justice system faces
significant challenges that make change difficult. One of the biggest obsta-
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cles is resistance from powerful interest groups that benefit from the status
quo. These groups include law enforcement agencies, private prison companies, and the bail industry, all of which have a financial stake in maintaining the current system. Another challenge facing reform efforts is the
complexity of the criminal justice system. The system involves multiple
agencies, actors, and processes, each with its own set of rules and procedures. This complexity makes it difficult to implement reforms that require
coordination and cooperation across different parts of the system.
Potential Solutions.
Despite these challenges, there are several potential solutions that could
help reform the criminal justice system. One solution is to focus on reducing overcriminalization by decriminalizing minor offenses and diverting
non-violent offenders to community-based programs instead of prison. This
would help reduce the burden on the criminal justice system and provide
more effective and cost-efficient alternatives to incarceration. Another potential solution is to address racial disparities in the criminal justice system
by implementing policies that promote equity and fairness. This could include measures such as eliminating mandatory minimum sentences, increasing funding for public defenders, and promoting diversity and cultural competence within the system. Finally, reform efforts could focus on increasing
transparency, accountability, and public trust in the criminal justice system.
This could include measures such as increasing data collection and analysis, implementing civilian oversight boards, and improving communication.
Conclusion.
In conclusion, the criminal justice system is facing significant challenges that require urgent attention. Overcriminalization, racial disparities,
and a crisis of legitimacy are just a few of the issues that must be addressed
through reform efforts. However, the complex nature of the system and resistance from powerful interest groups make change difficult. Nevertheless, potential solutions such as reducing overcriminalization, addressing
racial disparities, and increasing transparency and accountability offer hope
for a more just and effective criminal justice system.
WRITING IN PRACTICE
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Law essay
54. Write a law essay on one of the following topics.
1. The UK court system and its effectiveness in reducing crime.
2. The challenges and opportunities of the criminal justice system.
3. The role of technology in the court system in Great Britain.
4. The impact of technology on criminal investigations and prosecutions.
5. The effectiveness of the insanity defense in criminal trials.
6. The challenges and opportunities of the jury system in the modern
society.
7. The impact of recent high-profile cases on public trust in courts.
8. Conceptual evolution of the judiciary branch of power in the digi-
tal age (in UK, USA, or any other country).
9. A comparative analysis of the court system in different countries
and legal traditions.
10. The legal and ethical implications of using the jury system in dif-
ferent countries.
OPTIONAL ASSIGNMENTS
55. Grammar Revision. Complete the text by writing appropriate
passive or active forms of the verbs in brackets.
Lie Detector Tests
Lie detectors 1. ______ (know) technically as ‘polygraph instruments’.
A polygraph instrument is a combination of medical devices that 2. ______
(use) to monitor changes occurring in the body. While a person 3. ______
(question) about a certain event or incident, the examiner 4. ______ (check)
whether there are any changes in the person's heart rate, blood pressure,
respiratory rate, etc. Fluctuations 5. ______ (may indicate) that the person
is being deceptive. Today most polygraph tests 6. ______ (administer) using digital equipment. The familiar scrolling paper lie detector which
7. ______ (depict) in so many old films 8. ______ (replace) by a computer
monitor. When you 9. ______ (sit) in the chair for a polygraph test, several
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sensors and wires. 10. ______ (connect) to your body in specific locations
to monitor your physiological activities. Deceptive behavior 11. ______
(suppose) to trigger certain physiological changes that 12. ______ (can detect) by a polygraph and a trained examiner, who 13. ______ (sometimes
call) a forensic psychophysiologist. Polygraphs 14. ______ (limit) in their
use in the private sector, but they 15. ______ (frequently employ) by government agencies and law-enforcement bodies. Generally speaking, nobody
16. ______ (can force) to take such a test.
56. Grammar Revision. Fill in the blanks with an appropriate tense
form. Follow the rules of sequence of tenses.
1. She noticed she ______ already late.
a) is b) was c) had been
2. She said that it ______ her an hour to finish the report.
a) takes b) took c) has taken
3. She asked him if he ______ her name.
a) knows b) knew c) had known
4. What did you do with the money you ______ from me?
a) borrowed b) have borrowed c) borrow
5. When I opened the door, the cat ______ out.
a) jump b) jumped c) had jumped
6. When I was ten I already ______ I wanted to be a scientist.
a) know b) knew c) had known
7. I went to see if she ______ up yet.
a) woke b) has woken c) had woken
8. I ______ 80 kilos three months ago.
a) was weighing b) have weighed c) weighed
9. As soon as I ______ the phone down, it rang again.
a) put b) have put c) had been put
10. I ______ that I would get the promotion but it looks difficult now.
a) hoped b) have hoped c) had hoped
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57. Grammar Revision. Change the sentences to reported speech.
1. She asked me,” Where have you been?” She asked me ______.
2. She said to me, “Close your eyes!” She told me ______. 3. Oliver said,
“Please, can I have some more food?” Oliver asked ______. 4. The park
attendant said, “Don’t walk on the grass!” The park attendant warned us
______. 5. Roy said, “I own two cars.” Roy said that ______. 6. Maria said,
“He has never written to me before.” Maria said that ______. 7. Father
said, “Go to your room and stay there.” Father ordered me ______. 8. He
asked me, “Are you alright? He asked me ______. 9. Mom said, “I haven’t
seen him in the last few days.” Mom said that that ______. 10. The stu-
dents said, “Please don’t give us any homework. The students begged the
teacher ______. 11. He asked me, “Do you speak English?” He asked me
______. 12. She said, “I’m very tired and can’t come with you. She said
that ______. 13. He asked me, “Why didn’t you phone me?” He asked me
______. 14. Mom said, “You must see a doctor”. Mom said that ______.
15. The neighbor said, “Don’t make so much noise.” The neighbor told us
______. 16. The teacher said, “I won’t be here next year.” The teacher said
that ______. 17. Dad said, “Could you take the dog for a walk?” Dad
asked me ______.
58. Grammar Revision. Change the sentences to reported speech.
1. Keith told the immigration officer, “This is my first visit to the
United States.” Keith told the immigration officer ______. 2. My friend
said, “I’m going to visit my parents next month.” My friend said ______.
3. The tourist guide warned us, “Don’t drink tap water in this city.” The
tourist guide warned us ______. 4. He asked me, “Are you starting work
on Monday?” He asked me ______? 5. Elisabeth to her brother: “Don’t
read my emails!” Elisabeth told her brother ______. 6. Jimmy complained,
“I have already written this invitation twice.” Jimmy complained ______.
7. The policeman wondered, “Why didn’t you stop at the traffic lights?”
The policeman wondered ______. 8. My sister told me, “I saw you at the
supermarket yesterday.” My sister told me ______. 9. The teacher said, “If
I knew the answer, I would tell you.” The teacher said ______. 10. My dad
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said, “You have to study harder for the next test.” My dad said ______.
11. The girl asked the shop assistant, “Can you shorten this dress for me?”
The girl asked the shop assistant ______. 12. He asked, “Do you live near
the city, James?” He asked James ______. 13. The reporter asked, “Did
you see the accident?” The reporter asked ______. 14. I advised Mike, “You
should see a doctor”. I advised Mike ______. 15. The teacher told the stu-
dents, “Speak up if you want to say something!” The teacher told the stu-
dents ______.
59. Grammar Revision. Change the sentences to reported speech.
1. She said, "I can get home on my own." She said that ______. 2. They
said, "We haven't been to an art gallery for ages." They said that ______.
3. The police asked me, "When did you leave the house this morning?" The
police asked me ______. 4. He said, "I'll think about it." He said that ______.
5. Mary said, "I should have phoned my mother." Mary said that ______.
6. The doctor told me. "You should cut down on your smoking." The doctor told me ______. 7. He asked me, "Do you understand all the rules?" He
asked me ______. 8. She asked me, "When will I see you again?" She asked
me ______. 9. My parents said, "We are going on holiday tomorrow." My
parents said that ______. 10. She said, "Wait until I get back!" She told
him ______. 11. My sister said, "I always eat lots of fresh fruit and salad."
She said that ______. 12. The workers said, "We won't have enough time
to finish the job." The workers said that ______. 13. The passenger asked,
"Could someone help me with the luggage?" The passengers asked ______.
14. Mom said, "Don't worry!" Mom told me ______. 15. Jack said, "We
must leave soon." Jack said that ______.
60. Vocabulary Revision. Underline the correct word in the sen-
tences below.
1. Defendants/lawyers in the U.K. wear wigs when they appear in
court. 2. The prosecutor/defendant charged the president with war crimes
against prisoners. 3. The defendant pleaded guilty/lawsuit to all the charges
he was facing. 4. I have a meeting with my judge/solicitor to discuss the
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changes to my will. 5. The company has appointed a well-known attor-
ney/criminal to defend them in court.
61. Vocabulary Revision. Choose the correct word from the list
to complete the sentences: evidence, guilty, verdict, court of law, brief,
lawsuit, trial, lawyer, jury, contract.
1. We were all relieved when we heard the jury’s ______. 2. The accused was found ______ and sentenced to five years in prison. 3. Unfortu-
nately, we didn’t have enough ______ to prove that he was guilty. 4. The
victim’s family filed a ______ against the organization. 5. The ______ last-
ed over three months. 6. I think you should get a lawyer to check the ______
before you sign it. 7. All the members of the ______ agreed that the defendant was not guilty. 8. The barrister's ______ was to defend a woman
accused of shoplifting. 9. After Nike’s wife filed for divorce, he decided to
consult a ______. 10. It is the judge who makes decisions in a ______.
62. Vocabulary Revision. Choose the most suitable option to complete these sentences.
1. The ______ (defendant, trial, charge) sat nervously in the courtroom. 2. He was given a five-year ______ (verdict, sentence, guilty) for
the robbery. 3. The detectives will ______ (acquit, appoint, interrogate) the
witness to get more information. 4. The ______ (trial, evidence, jury) was
televised and lasted for several weeks. 5. The man was in ______ (sentence, trial, court) last week for assaulting a family member. 6. The prosecutor decided to ______ (comprise, charge, testify) the suspect with theft.
7. The DNA ______ (evidence, will, decision) pointed to the suspect's involvement in the crime. 8. The jury returned a unanimous guilty ______
(charge, verdict, testimony). 9. The ______ (jury, defendant, lawsuit) carefully reviewed all the evidence presented. 10. The defendant was found
______ (dead, surprised, guilty) of robbery.
63. Vocabulary Revision. Complete the sentences by choosing the
right option.
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Trial by Jury
The right of ‘trial by jury’ is an important safeguard against the power of the state over people’s lives. The primary role of trial by jury is to
enable ordinary people to decide on the 1. ______ or innocence of those
2. ______ with crimes against the laws of the land, instead of 3. ______ or
magistrates appointed by the government. Juries also play a limited role in
the enforcement of civil laws as well. But the right to trial by jury has been
limited in the interests of the efficient operation of the 4. ______ system.
All minor 5. ______ and the majority of crimes which go to trial are dealt
with ‘summarily’ at hearings without juries in the Magistrates’ Court.
The role of the jury varies between civil and criminal cases. In a criminal trial, the role of the jury is to decide 6. ‘______’ while the judge decides ‘questions of law’. The jury will decide such questions by considering the 7. ______ presented in the court. The jury will listen to 8. ______
and view the ‘exhibits’, that is, physical evidence the lawyers on both sides
of the case and listening to the ‘directions’ from the judge about the
9. ______, such as weapons, fingerprints, documents or blood-stained clothing. After being ‘addressed’ by jury will then retire to ‘consider the evidence’ and 10. ______. In civil cases juries will sometimes decide on the
amount of compensation. In defamation trials they may also make findings
of fact.
№ A B
C
1.
guilt
guilty
blame
2.
suspected
acquitted
charged
3.
prosecutors
attorneys
judges
4.
just
justice
justify
5.
opponents
offences
indictments
6.
questions of fact
questions of witnesses
problems of victims
7.
appeals
evidence
lawsuit
8.
court reporters
verdicts
witnesses
9.
lawyer
legality
law
10.
reach a ‘verdict’
reach a deal
get a sentence
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ASSIGNMENTS FOR SELF-EVALUATION
Module test 1
1. Grammar. Complete the sentences (1–10) by choosing the best
options (a, b, c).
1. The student complained that he ______ his examination since
January.
a. had been doing;
b. has done;
с. had been done.
2. A lawyer told Mr. Woodworth that the most severe punishment for
that criminal offence ______ life imprisonment.
a. had been;
b. has been;
c. was.
3. The Minister said that law ______ police officers more severely
than ordinary people for illegal activities.
a. will punish;
b. punish;
c. would punish.
4. The associate lawyer asked the client ______ him at the trial.
a. to not interrupt;
b. not to interrupt;
c. don’t interrupt.
5. Mayor said that in a few years he ______ on maintaining social
stability and solving transportation problems.
a. would focus;
b. will be focused;
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