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Файл:Практический английский язык для юристов = Practical English for Law Students. В 2 частях. Ч. 2. Учебное пособие
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Fig. 2.2. Construction of a complex sentence beginning
with a dependent clause
Dependent Clauses are divided into three types and they are as
follows.
1. Relative Clause. It is a dependent clause that modifies a noun.
Basically, relative clauses have similar qualities as adjectives that modify
nouns. They usually sit right after the nouns they modify. Examples:
• I’m looking for the red book that went missing last week.
• Andrew is asking for the shoes which used to belong to his dad.
• You there, who is sitting quietly at the corner, come here and lead
the class out.
Relative Clauses fall into two categories: Defining and Non-defining
Relative Clause.
Defining and Non-defining Relative Clauses. A defining relative
clause describes the noun we are talking about. Example: I like the woman
who lives next door. (If I don’t say ‘who lives next door’, then we don’t
know which woman I mean). A non-defining relative clause gives us extra information about something. We don’t need this information to understand the sentence. Example: I live in London, which has some fantastic
parks. (Everybody knows where London is, so ‘which has some fantastic
parks’ is extra information.)
Relative pronouns are used in defining relative clauses. We can
use who, whom, which, whose, or that. We use who, whom for people and
which for things. We can use that, whose for people or things. The rela-
tive clause can come after the subject or the object of the sentence. We
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cannot drop the relative pronoun if it is the subject of the relative clause.
Examples:
• I’m looking for a secretary who/that can use a computer well.
• She has a son who/that is a lawyer.
• I sent a letter which/that arrived three weeks later.
• The camera which/that costs £100 is over there.
We can drop the relative pronoun if the relative pronoun is the object of the relative clause. Examples:
• We went to the court (which/that) Lucy recommended.
• The police arrested a man (who/that) Jill worked with.
• The university (which/that) she likes is famous.
Whose is always the subject of the relative clause and cannot be left
out. It replaces a possessive. It can be used for people and things. Examples:
• The dog whose owner lives next door is over there.
• The woman whose car is a LADA is coming tonight.
• The house whose roof is old belongs to me.
In case of non-defining relative clauses, we don’t use that, so we
need to use which if the pronoun refers to a thing, and who if it refers to
a person. We cannot drop the relative pronoun in this kind of clause,
even if the relative pronoun is the object of the clause. Examples:
• My sister, who I live with, knows a lot about British courts.
• My mother’s house, which I grew up in, is very comfortable.
• Yesterday I called our friend Julie, who lives in New York.
• Last week I bought a new computer, which I don’t like now.
Prepositions and relative clauses. If the verb in the relative clause
needs a preposition, we put it at the end of the clause. Examples:
• The music (which/that) Julie listens to is good.
• My brother met a woman (who/that) I used to work with.
• The job (which/that) she applied for is well paid.
Question words where/when/why in relative clause. We can some-
times use these question words instead of relative pronouns and prepositions. Examples:
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• I live in the city where I study.
• I live in the city that/which I study in.
• I live in the city in which I study.
The summer was long and hot. I graduated from university in the
summer.
• The summer when I graduated from university was long and hot.
• The summer that/which I graduated from university in was long
and hot.
• The summer in which I graduated was long and hot.
2. Nominal Clause. Dependent clauses acting as nouns in sentences
are called nominal clauses. These often start with question words (how,
what, who, where, when, why), relative pronouns (which, who, whose, whom,
that), if, whether, etc. Examples:
• I like what I hear.
• You need to express that it’s crossing a line for you.
• He knows how things work around here.
3. Adverbial Clause. By definition, these are dependent clauses acting as adverbs. It means that these clauses have the power to modify verbs,
adjectives and other adverbs. Examples:
• Alice did the dishes until her legs gave up.
• Hikers enjoy the journey because that is the best part.
• Whether you like it or not, I will follow my heart.
Coordinate Clause. Two or more similarly important independent
clauses joined by coordinating conjunctions (and, or, but etc.) in terms of
compound sentences are called coordinate clauses. Examples:
• I like taking photos and he loves posing for them.
• You prefer flying but she always wants to take a bus.
• We are going to visit Terry or he is coming over.
Non-finite Clause. They contain a Participle or an Infinitive verb that
makes the subject and verb evident even though hidden. In terms of a participle, the participial phrase takes place of the subject or object of the sentence. Examples:
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• He saw the boy (who was) staring out of the window.
• She is the first person (who is) to enter the office.
• (When they heard) Hearing the fireworks, the children jumped up.
Conjunction.
It is very important to use the right type of conjunction to form complex sentences. Types of conjunctions are as follows.
• Coordinating Conjunctions.
• Correlative Conjunctions.
• Subordinating Conjunctions.
• Compound Conjunction.
• Adverbial Conjunction.
The job of a coordinating conjunction is to join two words, phrases,
or independent clauses, which are parallel in structure. There are seven coordinating conjunctions: and, but, for, nor, or, so, yet. It is easier to memorize the seven coordinating conjunctions with the acronym — FANBOYS.
For — I was meaning to leave soon, for I was getting late to the
next class.
And — Freya left quickly and I was worried about her.
Nor — They weren’t up for athletics nor was I.
But — We were running late but it wasn’t possible to get out of here
anytime soon.
Or — Is it okay or should I go for the last laugh?
Yet — It was early in the morning yet we were all ready to go home.
So — He was panicking so we were cautious.
Correlative conjunction uses a set of words in a parallel sentence
structure to show a contrast or to compare the equal parts of a sentence.
The words of correlative conjunctions have a special connection between
them. The correlative conjunctions are: not only — but also, either — or,
neither — nor, both — and, not — but, whether — or, etc. Examples:
• Neither Alex nor Robin can play baseball.
• I want both ice cream and cereal.
• He ate not only the ice cream but also the chocolate.
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• Rina is both the CEO and Managing Director of the company.
• She didn’t know whether to call in or wait her turn.
A subordinating conjunction joins elements of an unparalleled sentence structure. These elements are usually a dependent clause and an independent clause. The most commonly used subordinating conjunctions are:
after, how, then, when, although, if, that, where, as, in order that, though,
which, as much as, inasmuch as, unless, while, because, provided, until,
who/whom, before, since, what, whoever and whomever (see Table 2.1).
Table 2.1
Types of Subordinating Conjunction
Time
Comparison
Condition
after
before
as soon as
as long as
till
until
whenever
now/by now
when
while
once
than
rather than
whether
whereas
as if
if
if only
unless
in case
providing
provided (that)
suppose
supposing
assuming (that)
Reason
Relativity
Concession
as
because
since
inasmuch as
in order to
in order that
so that
why
that
what
whatever
which
whichever
who
whoever
whom
whomever
whose
though
although
even though
as though
lest
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Examples:
• Before we left home, I had had my breakfast.
• Provided they come, we can start class Tuesday.
• When he was washing my car, I went to the store.
• Even though the weather was horrible, they still went outside.
Compound Conjunction. These are conjunctions that have two or
three parts. Each and every part of these does not have to be conjunctions
themselves. The parts become inseparable in the sense that they tend to pop
up next to one another more often and not. Examples:
• We love to go skinny dipping as well as busking in the sun.
• He acted as if it were his first time under the sun.
• I made a deal to see them provided that I was assured police
protection.
• I hurried out of the room so that I didn’t have to listen to her
anymore.
Adverbial Conjunction. They help bring together two complete
thoughts like some of the other conjunctions while also being adverbs themselves. They are also called conjunctive adverbs (see Table 2.2).
Table 2.2
Types of Adverbial Conjunctions
Comparison
Contrast
Time
Emphasis
similarly
like
as
likewise
but
however
instead
rather
in spite of
lately
since
now
meanwhile
before
undoubtedly
definitely
certainly
of course
indeed
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Summarizing
Exemplifying
Effect
Sequence
briefly
merely
quickly
in conclusion
in summary
for example
for instance
namely
typically
representatively
that is
accordingly
consequently
hence
therefore
then
first
next
finally
furthermore
additionally
in addition
moreover
Examples:
• I was looking for a tea stall; additionally, I needed a salon for
a complete makeover.
• Tim was banking on his skills as a salesman. Meanwhile, he should
have researched the clients.
• Mila was on her way back home, therefore, the world she left be-
hind her didn’t bother her as much.
GRAMMAR IN PRACTICE
3. Complete the sentences by choosing the correct relative
pronoun.
1. The minister, ______ which/who was appointed just last week,
made no comment on the situation. 2. Isn’t that the spot ______ which/
where the accident happened last night? 3. The human brain, ______ which/
who weight about 1400 grams, is ten times the size of a baboon’s. 4. There
are several reasons ______ which/why I don’t want to see Michael tonight.
5. This is the office ______ which/where I work. 6. The new girl in our
class, ______ who’s/whose name is Alexandra, seems really nice. 7. The
Titanic, ______ which/that people said was unsinkable, sand on her maiden voyage. 8. All the people to ______ who/whom the e-mail was sent replied. 9. April 1st, ______ which/when we play tricks on people, is known
as April Fools’ Day. 10. Harry Hill, ______ who/whose new series starts
next week, is one of my favorite comedians. 11. A very popular breed of dog
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is the German Shepherd, ______ which/who is often used as a guard dog.
12. Blackpool Tower, ______ which/that was modelled on the Eiffel Tower, is a very well-known landmark. 13. Mario Testino has taken some great
photos, some of _____ which/that are in this book. 14. Toby, _____ whose/
who his parents wanted him to be a doctor, became a musician instead.
15. I missed the game on Saturday, ______ what/which was a shame.
16. They had four children, the eldest of ______ who/whom was just ten
years old. 17. They called their daughter Emiko, ______ which/that means
‘smiling child’. 18. Everyone came except for Cameron, ______ who/which
was not very well. 19. Most people had not heard of Usain Bolt before the
Beijing Olympics, ______ where/which he won three gold medals. 20. I med
Dale last year, ______ when/who he was working at the holiday center.
4. Make one sentence from the two short ones. The second sentence
should become the relative clause. The relative pronoun is the subject
of the relative clause.
1. She worked for a man. The man used to be a judge. 2. They called
a lawyer. The lawyer lived nearby. 3. I sent an email to my advocate. My
advocate lives in Moscow. 4. The customer liked the waitress. The waitress was very friendly. 5. We broke the computer. The computer belonged
to my father. 6. I dropped a glass. The glass was new. 7. She loves books.
The books have happy endings. 8. They live in a city. The city is in the north
of England. 9. The man is in the garden. The man is wearing a blue jumper. 10. The girl works in a bank. The girl is from Russia.
5. Make a new sentence by joining the two short sentences. The
second sentence should become the relative clause, and the relative pronoun is the object.
1. We ate the fruit. I bought the fruit. 2. She bought the computer.
Her brother had recommended the computer. 3. He lost the money. I had
given him the money. 4. We called the taxi company. Julie often uses the
taxi company. 5. John met a girl. I used to employ the girl. 6. Lucy called
the doctor. My mother knows the doctor. 7. He brought a woman. I used to
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often meet the woman. 8. We employed the lawyer. Julie recommended
the lawyer. 9. The fruit is on the table. I bought the fruit. 10. The wallet
belongs to John. Lucy found the wallet in the garden.
6. Make one sentence by changing the second sentence into a defining relative clause. The relative pronoun can be either the subject or
object of the relative clause.
1. They found the money. I dropped the money. 2. I broke the plate.
The plate was a wedding present. 3. The police arrested the man. I saw the
man steal a handbag. 4. The Queen fired the chef. We had met the chef.
5. She wrote to her friend. Her friend lives in Vietnam. 6. Jill ate the sandwich. The sandwich had tomato and cheese inside. 7. His friend lives in
Scotland. His friend is a lawyer. 8. We called the secretary. I went to school
with the secretary. 9. The CD is in my bag. The CD has Spanish music.
10. The bag was stolen. I bought the bag yesterday. 11. The book is very
interesting. The book is about Japanese culture. 12. He likes films. The films
come from Asia. 13. My nephew broke the plate. I received the plate as
a present. 14. The chocolate was very old. We bought the chocolate last
week. 15. The TV program was very funny. Lucy recommended the TV
program.
7. Make relative clauses without using the relative pronoun.
Example: I gave you a book. It had many pictures. → The book
I gave you had many pictures.
1. He lives in a house. The house is not very big. 2. I am reading
a book at the moment. It is very interesting. 3. You live in a town. The town
is very old. 4. The sweets are delicious. I bought them yesterday. 5. The
football match was very exciting. My friend played in it. 6. The letter hasn’t
arrived yet. I posted it three days ago. 7. The jury found a person guilty.
He was accused of a murder. 8. They are playing a song on the radio. Do
you like it? 9. Jane wore a beautiful shirt yesterday. Did you see it? 10. Sue
is going out with a boy. I don’t like him.
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8. Complete the sentences with relative pronouns or question
words from the list: that, when, where, which, who, whom, whose, why.
Decide if the clause is defining or non-defining.
1. Is he the person ______ lives with you? 2. The man, ______ wife
is a famous violinist, can play the piano himself. 3. The Johnson family,
______ son moved to the U.K., lives in Canada. 4. The man called his
wife, ______ picked up the phone. 5. Can you tell me about the policeman,
______ you spoke with this morning? 6. The bad weather is the reason
______ I didn’t come to practice yesterday. 7. Food ______ is imported
from other countries is often more expensive than local food. 8. I know
a great restaurant ______ we can get good food. 9. The policeman talked
to the children ______ mothers were waiting outside. 10. I helped the old
lady ______ books fell on the floor. 11. Do you know ______ there are no
elephants in South America? 12. My parents remember the time ______
there was no internet. 13. The cake ______ my mother made tasted really
great. 14. The fireman rescued the girl ______ was trapped on the third
floor. 15. The woman ______ dog barks all the time lives together with her
daughter. 16. I often visit my grandparents, ______ live a few blocks down
the street. 17. Avatar, ______ we saw a few days ago, won several Oscars.
18. My dad knows a man ______ brother works in the White House.
19. I visited one of my uncles, ______ lives on the other side of town.
20. The office is a place ______ I can do my work without being disturbed.
21. Give this medicine to the parents ______ child is ill. 22. Most of the
people ______ she met were asylum seekers. 23. My classmate, ______
studied hard for the test, failed. 24. There is the cafeteria ______ we can
have lunch. 25. The man ______ sold me the car is my neighbor.
9*. Complete the sentences with the appropriate relative pronouns
and prepositions.
1. The running club is going to several races this year including the
New York Marathon, ______ I’m taking part ______. 2. I was so embarrassed in the restaurant yesterday! My uncle didn’t like the food, ______
he kept complaining ______. 3. There was a bad accident here yesterday.
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