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Файл:Практический английский язык для юристов = Practical English for Law Students. В 2 частях. Ч. 2. Учебное пособие
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101
The old woman, ______ house the car crashed ______, was later taken to
hospital. 4. There are many hotels in the city, the best ______ is probably
the Victoria. 5. I can’t work at the cinema on Saturday. They will need
someone to collect the tickets at the door, ______ I’m usually responsible
______. 6. Tomorrow my mum is going to stay with my aunt, ______ she
is always worrying ______. 7. Thankfully the neighbors, ______ dog
we’ve been looking ______, are coming back from holiday tomorrow.
8. The pop band sang in front of around 20,000 people, most ______ seemed
to be young girls.
10. Complete the sentences by choosing the correct conjunction.
1. I’m wet ______ because/so that it’s raining. 2. ______ As/For it’s
already ten o’clock, we really need to finish. 3. I did it ______ because/in
order that you told me to! 4. ______ Now/In order that Jo knows, she feels
happier. 5. Remind him ______ because/so that he won’t forget. 6. Lesley
was excited ______ because/because of the party. 7. A: Why did you come?
B: ______ Because/As I wanted to see Justin. 8. I was tired, ______ be-
cause/so I went to bed early. 9. There’s a great place ______ since/for cycling in the park. 10. ______ Therefore,/In order that we have a serious
problem. 11. Phone me ______ if/in case you get there. 12. Take a good bo-
ok to read ______ if/in case the plane is late.
11. Complete the sentences by choosing the best option.
1. We need two hundred dollars ______ this to pay for everything.
a. because
b. since
c. although
d. if
2. ______ glass is a solid, its molecular structure is that of a liquid.
a. Because
b. Since
c. Although
d. If
3. Give her a telephone number to ring ______ she gets lost.
a. whether
b. in case
c. unless
d. perhaps
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4. How long did they wait?
a. For lunch time.
b. Until six o’clock.
c. Till he came. d. Since this
morning.
5. Which of the following is correct?
a. He neither speaks English nor French.
b. He speaks nor English and French.
c. He speaks neither English nor French.
d. Neither he speaks English nor French.
6. ______ his parents allow him or not, Alex intends to go to the party.
a. Whether
b. If
c. Despite
d. While
7. Supposedly, digital versatile disks, or DVDs as they are called, are
______ resistant to scratching _________ records.
a. much, than
b. so, as
c. such, that
d. far more, than
8. His appearance is unsmiling but______.
a. He looks very serious
b. His heart is full of compassion for others
c. People are afraid of him
d. His heart is full of compassion for others
9. Why don’t you go and see a film ______ you’re waiting for the car
to be repaired?
a. when
b. then
c. while
d. for a while
10. We cannot afford a fan, ______ an air-conditioner.
a. how
b. alone
c. let alone
d. then
11. Which option would be the best conjunction between the given
sentences? ‘David underwent through strenuous hard work. He made his
dream come true.’
a. hence
b. afterwards
c. as well as
d. however
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12. He did not study hard, ______ he passed the examination.
a. and
b. although
c. nevertheless
d. but
13. He is honest ______ overlooks dishonesty of others.
a. and
b. but
c. so
d. thus
14. I want such boys ______ will be able to do this.
a. who
b. whom
c. as
d. that
15. The train was late. ______ I managed to arrive on time.
a. hence
b. despite that
c. incidentally d. on the
contrary
16. There are many road accidents ______ roads are bad.
a. because
b. for
c. so that
d. although
17. ______ it was 1900s, there were no cybercrimes.
a. For
b. So
c. As
d. Nor
18. The police watch our roads better ______ people could drive more
safety.
a. in order
b. so far
c. for
d. since
19. Tar (гудрон) dresses the road surface ______ making roads
stronger.
a. for
b. because
c. since
d. whose
20. The criminal was caught red-handed ______, he admitted committing the crime.
a. Because
b. So that
c. Therefore
d. Hence
12*. Complete the text with appropriate subordinators (linking
words).
104
Route 66 is a famous road which once went 3,940 km from the east
to the west of the USA. It was built in 1926 1. ______ there was no road
transport across the country. Many poor farmers travelled along Route 66
in the 1930s 2. ______ to move to California. They went 3. ______ they
could find work there. The road was very useful 4. ______ people driving
on business. Therefore, many shops, restaurants and hotels opened along
Route 66 5. ______ drivers could take a break on their journeys. The first
McDonald’s restaurant opened on Route 66. A new, bigger road was built
next to Route 66 and 6. ______ the famous road became, sadly, less important. In 1985, Route 66 was taken off the road map 7. ______ it was no
longer an official state road. The road was broken up, 8. ______ it became
a system of smaller roads. 9. ______ it is no longer possible to drive along
Route 66 today. However, there is a Route 66 museum and even a Route
66 fan club 10. ______ the road is still very famous.
DEVELOPING LANGUAGE SKILLS
Reading 1
13. Read Text 2A and find definitions of crime and criminals.
TEXT 2A. What is Crime?
Crime is a public wrong. It is an act of offence which violates the law
of the state and is strongly disapproved by the society. Crime is defined as
acts or omissions forbidden by law that can be punished by imprisonment
or fine. The term ‘crime’ is derived from the Latin word crimen meaning
‘offence’ and also ‘a wrong-doer’. Crime is considered as an antisocial be-
havior. Seriousness of crime is generally determined by the type or length
of the penalty specified in the statute. A felony is defined as a crime that
carries a sentence of more than a year in prison or the death penalty. Major
felonies include: kidnapping, murder, rape, armed robbery, embezzlement,
racketeering, and fraud. Misdemeanor crimes are less serious than felonies
and often carry a maximum sentence of six months in jail. Examples are
minor drug offenses, shoplifting, reckless driving, and prostitution.
105
The Elements of Crime. Every crime must satisfy all requirements
for that particular crime to be proven guilty. If the action of a person satisfies every requirement of an offense, they are said to have committed
a crime. Generally, there are four elements of every crime: Accused per-
son: The first and the most important element of a crime is an individual
who has an intention and is prepared to commit a crime. Mens rea: Mens
rea in Latin means ‘guilty mind’. For a crime to be committed, a criminal
intention is an essential element. Actus reus: Actus reus in Latin means
‘guilty act’. It basically refers to an act or omission which leads to the completion of an offence. Actus reus can be a completed act, such as stabbing
a person to cause his death. It can also be an omission (failure) to perform
an action. For example, driving a vehicle without a driving license is an
omission. Both the actus reus and mens rea elements must occur simultaneously for a defendant to be held accountable. Injury/hurt: The criminal
act should be accompanied by an injury or hurt which is physical, mental
or monetary which violates the law of a state. To prove each element of
a crime beyond a reasonable doubt, the government must provide evidence
in a criminal prosecution. The government is responsible for the burden
of proof.
Stages of Crime. When a person intentionally commits a crime, there
are four stages to consider: criminal intention, preparation, attempt, commission of crime or accomplishment. The intention is the first stage of any
offence. In this stage, the offender decides the motive and his course or direction towards the offence. The law cannot punish the person just for having an intention to do any illegal act. Preparation is the second stage
amongst the stages of crime. Preparation refers to the stage where the person intending to commit the crime seeks to make the necessary arrangements to enable himself to commit the crime. Preparation may involve finding necessary tools or planning the manner in which the person seeks to
execute the crime. An attempt is a direct movement towards the execution
of a crime after the preparation. According to the law, a person is guilty of
an attempt to commit an offense if he/she does an act which is more than
simply preparatory to the commission of the offence. The final and last stage
106
of a crime is accomplishment when the attempt to commit the crime is suc-
cessful and the crime is said to have been committed. In the case of commission of a crime, the offender is always liable.
The Concept of a Criminal. When we think of criminals, we often
envision someone disgusting, such as a murderer. However, this term has
a much larger meaning: anyone who defies the law, even if it is just not
paying a speeding ticket, is theoretically a criminal under national or international law. Someone who breaks the law is referred to as a criminal.
A criminal is someone who murders, steals, or defrauds the government.
Individuals may be found criminally accountable for international crimes,
such as crimes against humanity, war crimes, and genocide, in addition to
state liability for violations of international law. As a result, it is simple to
define a criminal as someone who violates the law.
Detection of Crime. In most countries the detection of crime is the
responsibility of the police, though special law enforcement agencies may
be responsible for the discovery of particular types of crime (e.g., customs
departments may be charged with combating smuggling and related offenses). Crime detection falls into three phases: the discovery that a crime
has been committed, the identification of a suspect, and the collection of
sufficient evidence to indict the suspect before a court.
The Role of Forensic Science. Forensic science plays an important
role in the investigation of serious crimes. One of the first significant
achievements in this field was the development of techniques for identifying individuals by their fingerprints. A broad range of scientific techniques
are available to law enforcement agencies attempting to identify suspects
or establish beyond doubt the connection between a suspect and a crime.
DNA fingerprinting of biological evidence (e.g., hair, sperm, and blood)
can exclude a suspect absolutely or establish guilt with a very high degree
of probability. Many other substances, such as fibers, paper, glass, and paint,
can provide considerable information under microscopic or chemical analysis. Computer networks allow investigators to search increasingly large
bodies of data on material samples. Digital forensics, also known as cyber
forensics, is pivotal in modern crime investigation, particularly amidst the
107
surge of cybercrimes impacting financial institutions and fraud cases. In
this dynamic landscape, forensic experts must continuously innovate to
combat emerging cyber threats effectively.
14. Read Text 2A again and decide if the statements below are
true or false. Correct the false ones. Give reasons to your opinion.
1. Seriousness of crime is determined by the type or length of the sentence imposed by prosecutors and judges. 2. Either the actus reus or mens
rea elements of the crime should be present for a defendant to be plead
guilty. 3. To prove each element of a crime beyond a reasonable doubt, both
the barrister and prosecutor must provide facts in a criminal prosecution.
4. Preparation may include planning the manner in which the person seeks
to execute the crime. 5. A criminal is someone who murders, burgles, kidnaps, or rob people of their community. 6. Computer networks allow investigators to search large bodies of data on material samples. 7. Digital forensics or cyber forensics, is crucial in modern crime investigation. 8. No
individual can be found criminally accountable for international crimes.
15. Answer the questions using information from Text 2A.
1. How is crime defined? 2. What is the difference between a felony
and misdemeanor? 3. What requirements must every crime satisfy for an
offender to be proven guilty? 4. Why is the government responsible for the
burden of proof? 5. Why cannot the law punish the person just for having
an intention to do any illegal act? 6. When is a person guilty of an attempt
to commit an offense according to the law? 7. How is a criminal referred
to? 8. How many phases does crime detection fall into? Describe them.
9. Why does forensic science play an important role in the investigation of
serious crimes? 10. What techniques for identifying individuals are available to law enforcement agencies nowadays?
Vocabulary drilling 1
16. Give Russian equivalents of the following word combinations.
Recall how they were used in Text 2A.
108
To violate the law, antisocial behavior, major felony, less serious
crime, to commit a crime, guilty mind, criminal intention, beyond a reasonable doubt, the burden of proof, to possess an intention, to defy the law,
to defraud the government, detection of crime, law enforcement agencies,
collection of sufficient evidence, to exclude a suspect, to establish guilt,
digital forensics, war crime, the state liability, to cause death, guilty act, to
make the necessary arrangements, customs department, discovery of particular types of crime, scientific techniques, DNA fingerprinting of biological evidence, to provide considerable information, cyber forensics, modern crime investigation, forensic expert, to combat emerging cyber threats.
17. Translate the following word combinations into English. Re-
call how they were used in Text 2A.
Запрещено законом, тяжесть преступления, похищение людей,
растрата, мошенничество, изнасилование, вооруженное ограбление;
мелкое правонарушение, связанное с оборотом наркотиков; кража в магазине, неосторожное вождение, удовлетворять всем требованиям, об-
виняемое лицо, причинить смерть кому-л., управление транспортным
средством без водительских прав, вне всяких разумных сомнений,
представлять доказательства в уголовном процессе, определять мотив,
намерение совершить незаконное действие, открыто неповиноваться
закону, штраф за превышение скорости, быть преступником согласно
международному праву, нести уголовную ответственность, раскрытие
преступления, предъявить подозреваемому обвинение в суде, отпечат-
ки пальцев, методы/способы установления /идентификации чего-л.
18. Make up collocations by matching the words. Write your own
sentences with them.
1.
violate
a.
crime
2.
an antisocial
b.
the government
3.
major
c.
mind
4.
combat
d.
forensics
5.
digital
e.
intention
109
6.
establish
f.
cyber threats
7.
detection of
g.
a reasonable doubt
8.
defraud
h.
proof
9.
possess
i.
felonies
10.
the burden of
j.
the law
11.
beyond
k.
guilty
12.
guilty
l.
agencies
13.
be proven
m.
guilt
14.
law enforcement
n.
behavior
19. Complete the sentences by using word combinations from the
list: armed robbery, emerging cyber threats, minor drug offense, guilty
act, criminal intention, defraud the government, the seriousness of his
crime, beyond a reasonable doubt, detection of crime, criminally accountable, digital forensics, exclude Rick as a suspect.
1. As a cyber expert, he often speaks at conferences about ______.
2. There is no crime if there is no ______. 3. Specifically, the prosecutor
must prove that you committed the crime ______. 4. Well, my findings do
not absolutely ______. 5. Federal law prohibits any types of forgery, such
as counterfeiting money, forging federal documents, or forgery intended to
______. 6. Yurii Gubanov is an author of popular blog, which features interviews with key figures of ______. 7. The physical elements that constitute a crime are called the actus reus (______). 8. Your data may be passed
to law enforcement authorities for the purposes of prevention and ______.
9. The young man was sentenced as an adult due to ______. 10. Those
who violated the laws and regulations were held both administratively and
______. 11. After years in prison, he finally received a pardon for his
______. 12. He was accused of taking part in an ______.
20. Choose the correct option for each gap to complete the fol-
lowing passage.
The Oxford Dictionary of Law defines 1. ______ criminal/crime as
being: “An act (or sometimes a failure to act) that is deemed by statute or
110
by the common law to be a 2. ______ publicly wrongdoing/public wrong
and is therefore punishable by the state in 3. ______ criminal/civil pro-
ceedings.” The Oxford Dictionary of Sociology defines crime in a more
complex way: ‘an 4. ______ offence/misdemeanor which goes beyond the
personal and into the public sphere, 5. ______ disturbing/breaking laws, to
which 6. ______ legitimate/legalize punishments or sanctions are attached,
and which requires the intervention of a public 7. ______ power/authority.’
The difference between these definitions goes to the heart of issues surrounding crime. As the Oxford English Dictionary and Dictionary of Law
definitions makes clear, the law ultimately defines what is and is not crime.
It makes a distinction between 8. ______ individual/private offences (such
as arguments or personal disputes) and 9. ______ community/public offences that offend a broader set of 10. ______ social/societal norms or
values. Criminologists look beyond this strict 11. ______ legal/legable
definition to 12. ______ investigate/examine the social and cultural roots
of crime and criminalization, including a questioning 13. ______ approach/
application as to why certain 14. ______ actions/activities are labelled
‘crime’ while others are not. Criminology is a discipline that focuses on:
The study of crime; the study of those who 15. ______ commit/perform
crime; the study of the criminal 16. ______ justice/jurisprudence and penal (punishment) system.
21. Fill in the gaps with the words from the list: attacked, protect,
property, defend, locks, lights, victims, self-defense, burgled, security, possessions, violence, preventative, criminals, problem, drugs, break in, be
aware, police, prevent.
Crime is a big 1. ______ in some cities. There is a lot of 2. ______
on the streets at night, people buy and sell 3. ______ illegally, and a lot of
houses are 4. ______ on a regular basis. The 5. ______ do their best to
6. ______ these things happening, but they are not always successful.
However, there are some things that people can do to make their lives safer, to 7. ______ themselves and their 8. ______ from crime. For example,
they can improve 9. ______ by fixing good, strong 10. ______ so that thieves
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