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Unit 13. Types of Cargoes 181
6. The scientist has developed new and exact methods for obtaining low tempera-
ture.
7. The experiments have confirmed the hypotheses he had advanced.
8. We hadn’t yet analysed the results when the commission arrived.
9. The latest data we have obtained are very interesting.
10. He had taken readings from apparatus and recorded data when suddenly the
equipment broke down.
11. The new model had passed all the tests by last month.
12. The labour productivity will have grown twice by next decade.
13. The conference will have considered all the questions by next week.
14. We will have installed the equipment by the time you come.
15. He will have tested the new approach to robot-making before it is factory-
proved.
16. He said he would have passed exams by the beginning of the term.
17. She explained that she would have done everything by the appointed time.
18. It was evident that the talks wouldn't have ended by the following week.
19. I was sure they would have received the letter by Saturday.
20. He said that we would have finished the inspection of the new engine by 5
o’clock.
21. We have designed this electronic equipment to speed up production.
22. The scientist has chosen several possible solutions.
23. The engineer asked us if we had ever seen a jet engine in action.
24. The newspaper reported that some hours before there had taken place a launch-
ing of a new rocket.
25. They will have shipped the goods when the documents are received.
13.2 Listening
Ex. 18 Get acquainted with the unknown words.
to be in collision – ɫɬɨɥɤɧɭɬɶɫɹ
to have at the disposal – ɢɦɟɬɶ ɜ ɪɚɫɩɨɪɹɠɟɧɢɢ
Ex. 19 Pronounce the following geographical and proper names:
Soviet the specialized ship Martha
the Mediterranean Sea
Ex. 20 Listen to the text “Shipment of a Cargo of Wheat Abroad”.
Ex. 21 Answer the questions to the text.
1. What was the item of a contract?
2. What type of vessel was chartered?
3. What happened to the vessel before the arrival?
182 Section 4: Transport Organization
4. What caused the collision?
5. What did the sellers offer?
6. How was the problem solved?
Ex. 22 Retell the text.
13.3 Speech Pattern
13.3.1 Active Vocabulary
Ex. 23 Learn the words from your active vocabulary.
gain – ɩɪɢɛɵɥɶ, ɞɨɯɨɞ
mode – ɫɩɨɫɨɛ, ɬɢɩ, ɫɪɟɞɫɬɜɨ
project cargo – ɫɬɪɨɢɬɟɥɶɧɵɣ ɝɪɭɡ
heavy lift cargo – ɬɹɠɟɥɨɜɟɫɧɵɣ ɝɪɭɡ
oversized cargo – ɧɟɝɚɛɚɪɢɬɧɵɣ (ɩɨ ɪɚɡɦɟɪɚɦ) ɝɪɭɡ
overweight cargo – ɧɟɝɚɛɚɪɢɬɧɵɣ (ɩɨ ɜɟɫɭ) ɝɪɭɡ
bulky cargo – ɤɪɭɩɧɨɝɚɛɚɪɢɬɧɵɣ ɝɪɭɡ
to stack – ɲɬɚɛɟɥɢɪɨɜɚɬɶ
pallet – ɩɨɞɞɨɧ, ɩɨɞɫɬɢɥɤɚ
to decline – ɭɦɟɧɶɲɚɬɶɫɹ, ɫɩɚɞɚɬɶ
bulk cargo – ɧɚɫɵɩɧɨɣ, ɧɚɜɚɥɨɱɧɵɣ ɝɪɭɡ
tallow – ɫɦɚɡɨɱɧɵɣ ɦɚɬɟɪɢɚɥ
gypsum – ɝɢɩɫ
log – ɛɪɟɜɧɨ
freight – ɮɪɚɯɬ, ɝɪɭɡ
lack – ɧɟɞɨɫɬɚɬɨɤ, ɨɬɫɭɬɫɬɜɢɟ
to subject to – ɩɨɞɜɟɪɝɚɬɶ
transshipment – ɩɟɪɟɝɪɭɡɤɚ, ɩɟɪɟɫɚɞɤɚ, ɩɟɪɟɜɚɥɤɚ
to encourage – ɩɨɨɳɪɹɬɶ
cost – ɫɬɨɢɦɨɫɬɶ; ɫɬɨɢɬɶ
costs – ɡɚɬɪɚɬɵ
retailer
– ɪɨɡɧɢɱɧɵɣ ɩɪɨɞɚɜɟɰ
deliverance – ɞɨɫɬɚɜɤɚ
Ex. 24 Render in English.
ɉɨɥɭɱɚɬɶ ɩɪɢɛɵɥɶ, ɩɨɥɭɱɚɬɶ ɜɵɫɨɤɭɸ ɩɪɢɛɵɥɶ, ɩɨɥɭɱɚɬɶ ɩɪɢɛɵɥɶ
ɜɵɲɟ ɫɪɟɞɧɟɣ, ɪɚɡɧɵɟ ɫɩɨɫɨɛɵ ɬɪɚɧɫɩɨɪɬɢɪɨɜɤɢ ɝɪɭɡɨɜ, ɦɨɪɫɤɨɣ ɫɩɨɫɨɛ ɩɟɪɟɜɨɡɨɤ, ɜɨɡɞɭɲɧɵɣ ɫɩɨɫɨɛ ɩɟɪɟɜɨɡɨɤ, ɫɬɪɨɢɬɟɥɶɧɵɣ ɝɪɭɡ ɷɬɨ ɛɪɟɜɧɚ ɢ ɞɪɟɜɟɫɢɧɚ, ɬɹɠɟɥɨɜɟɫɧɵɦ ɝɪɭɡɨɦ ɹɜɥɹɸɬɫɹ ɷɥɟɤɬɪɨɨɛɨɪɭɞɨɜɚɧɢɟ ɢ ɫɬɚɧɤɢ, ɩɪɟɜɵɲɚɸɳɢɣ ɪɚɡɦɟɪɵ ɝɪɭɡ ɫɨɫɬɨɢɬ ɢɡ ɷɧɟɪɝɨ- ɢ ɬɟɩɥɨɬɭɪɛɢɧ, ɤɪɭɩɧɨɝɚɛɚɪɢɬɧɵɣ ɝɪɭɡ ɲɬɚɛɟɥɢɪɭɟɬɫɹ ɧɚ ɞɟɪɟɜɹɧɧɵɟ ɩɨɞɞɨɧɵ, ɭɦɟɧɶɲɢɬɶ ɨɛɴɟɦ ɩɟɪɟɜɨɡɨɤ, ɫɧɢɡɢɬɶ ɨɛɴɟɦ ɝɪɭɡɨɜ, ɧɟɮɬɶ ɹɜɥɹɟɬɫɹ ɧɚɫɵɩɧɨɦ ɝɪɭɡɨɦ, ɝɪɭɡ (ɮɪɚɯɬ),
Unit 13. Types of Cargoes 183
ɝɪɭɡ, ɧɟɞɨɫɬɚɬɨɤ ɮɪɚɯɬɚ, ɧɟɯɜɚɬɤɚ ɝɪɭɡɚ, ɨɬɫɭɬɫɬɜɢɟ ɩɨɪɬɨɜɨɝɨ ɨɛɨɪɭɞɨɜɚɧɢɹ,
ɩɨɞɜɟɪɝɚɬɶ ɝɢɛɤɨɫɬɢ, ɩɨɞɜɟɪɝɚɬɶ ɫɧɢɠɟɧɢɸ ɞɨɯɨɞɨɜ, ɩɨɞɜɟɪɝɚɬɶ ɫɧɢɠɟɧɢɸ
ɝɪɭɡɨɩɟɪɟɜɨɡɨɤ, ɩɟɪɟɝɪɭɡɤɚ ɫ ɨɞɧɨɝɨ ɜɢɞɚ ɬɪɚɧɫɩɨɪɬɚ ɧɚ ɞɪɭɝɨɣ, ɩɟɪɟɝɪɭɡɤɚ ɜ
ɤɨɧɬɟɣɧɟɪ, ɡɚɬɪɚɬɵ ɩɨ ɩɟɪɟɝɪɭɡɤɟ, ɩɨɞɜɟɪɝɚɬɶ ɫɧɢɠɟɧɢɸ ɡɚɬɪɚɬ, ɪɨɡɧɢɱɧɵɣ
ɩɪɨɞɚɜɟɰ, ɞɨɫɬɚɜɤɚ, ɞɨɫɬɚɜɤɚ ɧɚ ɝɪɭɡɨɜɢɤɚɯ.
13.3.2 The Text “Types of Cargoes”
Ex. 25 Read the international words and give their Russian meaning (See
“Grammar”, G.27).
commercial container transport
automobile lift component
generator turbine material
crane dock metal
aluminium gypsum chip
business collect start
convert nation utilize
Ex. 26 Read the text “Types of Cargoes” and translate it with the help of
dictionary if necessary.
TYPES OF CARGOES
Cargo (or freight) is a term used to denote goods or produce being
transported generally for commercial gain, usually on a ship, plane, train, van or
truck. In modern times, containers are used in all types of cargo transport.
1. Marine cargo types
There is a wide range of marine cargoes at seaport terminals.
Containers are the largest and fastest
growing cargo category at most ports
worldwide. Containerized cargo includes
everything from auto parts and machinery
components to shoes, toys, and frozen meat
and seafood.
Automobiles are handled at many ports.
Project cargo and heavy lift cargo may
include items such as manufacturing
equipment, factory components, power
equipment such as generators and wind
turbines, military equipment or almost any other oversized or overweight cargo too
big or too heavy to fit into a container.
Bulky cargo is typically material stacked on wooden pallets and lifted into
and out of the hold of a vessel by cranes on the dock or aboard the ship itself. The
184 Section 4: Transport Organization
volume of bulky cargo has declined dramatically worldwide as containerization
has grown.
Bulk cargoes, such as salt, oil, tallow, and scrap metal, are usually defined as
commodities that are neither on pallets nor in containers, and which are not
handled as individual pieces, the way heavy-lift and project cargoes are.
Aluminium, grain, gypsum, logs and wood chips, for instance, are bulk cargoes.
2. Plane cargo
Air cargo is commonly known as freight.
There are many businesses which collect freight
and deliver it to the customer. Aircraft were first
put to use carrying mail as cargo in 1911, but
eventually manufacturers started designing planes
just for freight. There are many commercial planes
suitable for carrying cargo such as the Boeing 747, which was built to be easily
converted to a cargo aircraft. Such very large aircraft also employee quick loading
containers known as unit load devices much like containerized cargo ships.
The military of most nations own and utilize large numbers of cargo planes,
for airlift logistics needs of such operations.
3. Freight train
Trains are capable of transporting large
numbers of containers which have come off the
shipping ports. Trains are also used for the
transportation of steel, wood and coal. Trains are
used as they can pull a large amount and
generally have a direct route to the destination.
Under the right circumstances, freight transport
by rail is more economic and energy efficient
than by road, especially when carried in bulk or
over long distances.
The main disadvantage of rail freight is its lack of flexibility. For this reason,
rail has lost much of the freight business to road transport. Rail freight is often
subject to transshipment costs since it must be transferred from one mode to
another in the chain; these costs may dominate and practices such as
containerization aim at minimizing these. Many governments are now trying to
encourage more freight onto trains, because of the environmental benefits that it
would bring; rail transport is very energy efficient.
4. Van or lorry (truck) cargo
There are many businesses which transport all types of cargo, ranging from
letters to houses to cargo containers. A good example of road cargo is for
supermarkets, these require deliveries every day to keep the shelves stacked with
goods for sale. Retailers of all kinds rely upon delivery trucks; either they are full
size semi trucks or smaller delivery vans.
Unit 13. Types of Cargoes 185
13.3.3 Drilling
Ex. 27 Form 3 forms of the verbs (See “Supplement 3”, table 16).
To be, to grow, to fit, to know, to put, to build, to have, to come, to bring, to
keep, to become, to read, to begin, to understand, to take, to write, to arise, to
break, to deal, to drive, to fall, to lay, to lose, to mean, to pay, to tear, to swing, to
throw, to wear.
Ex. 28 Form the –ing form of the verbs.
To use, to produce, to transport, to operate, to include, to handle, to manufacture, to stack, to own, to rang, to dominate, to carry, to build, to ship, to require,
to rely, to full, to encourage, to decline, to convert.
Ex. 29 Find the synonyms.
Lorry, to decline, plane, security, cargo, type, to deliver, safety, to minimize,
to convert, gain, category, aircraft, to produce, equipment, meal, volume, marine,
to manufacture, food, truck, to decrease, freight, mode, to transport, profit, to transform, facility, to grow, amount, sea, part, component, ship, vessel, to increase.
Ex. 30 Complete the sentences using the information from the text “Types of
Cargoes”.
1. Cargo is the term to denote goods or product being transported ….
2. Containers are the largest and fastest growing ….
3. Project cargo and heavy lift cargo may include items such as ….
4. Bulky cargo is generally stacked on ….
5. Bulk cargoes are not handled as ….
6. Plane cargo is commonly known as ….
7. Many commercial planes are built to be easily converted to ….
8. The military forces possess and utilize large number of ….
9. Trains are used for transportation not only containers but ….
10. The main disadvantage of rail freight is its ….
11. Train cargoes must be transferred from ….
12. For this reason it is often subject to ….
13. Rail transport is very ….
14. Road cargo transports all types of cargo ranging ….
15. Thanks to lorry cargo retailers stacked the shelves of supermarkets with ….
186 Section 4: Transport Organization
Ex. 31 Read the text “Classification of Cargoes” and say its content in Rus-
sian. See the comments.
CLASSIFICATION OF CARGOES
Owing to their origin all the most industrial products, semi-manufactured
goods, natural recourses and consumer commodities may be classified as general,
container, packaged, bulk, grain, liquid, dangerous, and gas cargoes.
General cargoes comprise goods of the following types: bagged, baled, barreled, boxed, metals and machinery, heavyweights, goods in packages, containers
and timber cargoes. The majority of general cargoes is transported in containers or
required special packaging.
Bulk cargoes comprise ores, coal, salts, green (raw) sugar, grain, fertilizers.
Transportation of bulk cargoes requires special knowledge to deal with.
Liquid, dangerous and gas cargoes are the most important cargoes in transportation. It must be taken into consideration their inflammable or explosive nature. They are liable to spontaneous fume or tainting odours.
Comments:
bagged – ɝɪɭɡ ɜ ɦɟɲɤɚɯ
baled – ɝɪɭɡ ɜ ɤɢɩɚɯ
barreled – ɝɪɭɡ ɜ ɛɨɱɤɚɯ
semi-manufactured goods – ɩɨɥɭɮɚɛɪɢɤɚɬɵ
fertilizer – ɭɞɨɛɪɟɧɢɟ
combustion – ɜɨɡɝɨɪɚɧɢɟ
fume – ɢɫɩɚɪɟɧɢɟ
tainting odours – ɢɫɩɨɪɱɟɧɧɵɟ, ɡɚɪɚɡɧɵɟ ɡɚɩɚɯɢ
Ex. 32 Transform the sentences into the Perfect Tenses using the suggested
adverbial modifiers of time (See, “Grammar”, G.15.3).
1. The significance of cargo transportation grows constantly. (recently)
2. Containerized cargo includes all types of goods and products. (since the last
century)
3. The volume of bulky cargo declined dramatically and containerization one
grew. (after)
4. Many businesses collect freight and deliver it to customer. (by the eve of the
millennium)
5. The military forces of the USA utilize large number of cargo planes. (by the
beginning of the Iraq war)
6. Trains usually have a direct route to the destination. (yet)
7. Van cargo delivers mail to the post-offices. (since 1911)
8. Many governments are trying to encourage train freight. (already, during 30
years)
9. Aircraft manufacturers are designing special cargo planes. (by the end of the
decade)
Unit 13. Types of Cargoes 187
10. Many ports use in-dock handling facilities for loading / unloading operations.
(already)
Ex. 33 Match types of cargoes (left column) and cargo items (right column).
1. container
2. dangerous
3. packaged
4. gas
5. boxed
6. marine
7. train
8. plane
9. road
10. bagged
11. baled
12. barreled
a) metals and machinery
b) cars, their parts and components
c) overweight and oversized equipment
d) salt, sugar, wheat, rice
e) ores, coal, salts, grain, fertilizers
f) iron, manganese, copper ores
g) wheat, rye, rice, barley, oats, buckwheat
h) oil products
i) military equipments
j) medical and health care facility
k) maize, beans, soy-beans, sunflower seeds
l) fuel oils, petrol, kerosene and lubricants
m) scientific apparatus and glasses items
n) pizza, food and meal products
o) mail
p) timber, logs, coal, mineral
q) scrap metal, aluminium, gypsum
r) consumer goods: toys, shoes, clothes
Ex. 34 Insert prepositions (for, on, by, from, to, into, of, out, in, owing to,
with, upon) where necessary.
1. Goods are transported … commercial gain.
2. Products are transported … a ship, plane, train and … road.
3. Containerized cargo includes … auto parts … consumer goods.
4. Oversized and overweight cargoes are too big and too heavy to fit … a con-
tainer.
5. Bulky cargo is generally stacked … wooden pallets.
6. The volume … bulky cargo has declined … recent years.
7. Bulky cargo is lifted … and … of the hold … a vessel … cranes … the dock or
… aboard the ship.
8. Bulk cargoes are stacked neither … pallets nor … containers.
9. The first plane carried mail as cargo … 1911.
10. Manufacturers designed commercial planes which can be easily converted … a
cargo aircraft.
11. The military forces … the most nations use … large number … cargo planes.
12. Trains are capable … transporting large number … containers.
13. … their origin all goods can be classified as general cargoes.
14. Rail freight is often subject … transshipment costs.
15. One must deal … special knowledge while transporting bulk cargoes.
188 Section 4: Transport Organization
16. Retailers rely … delivery trucks.
17. The main disadvantage … rail freight is its lack … flexibility.
Ex. 35 Agree or disagree with the statements according to the information
from the text, using the clichés:
That’s wrong. – ɗɬɨ ɧɟɜɟɪɧɨ.
That’s (quite) right. – (ɋɨɜɟɪɲɟɧɧɨ) ɜɟɪɧɨ.
That’s not quite true to the fact. – ɗɬɨ ɧɟ ɫɨɜɫɟɦ ɫɨɨɬɜɟɬɫɬɜɭɟɬ ɮɚɤɬɭ.
According to the text … – ɋɨɝɥɚɫɧɨ ɬɟɤɫɬɭ …
1. Cargo is not the same as freight.
2. Marine cargo includes only containerization.
3. Plane freight is used to carry mail.
4. Freight train is widely used because of its flexibility.
5. Lorry cargo delivers only consumer goods.
6. In addition to marine, plane, train, road types of cargoes there exist another
classification of cargo.
7. Oil products are not dangerous cargoes.
8. It is convenient to transport glass goods as bulk cargo.
9. Packaged cargo is subject to enormous transshipment costs.
10. Perfume and cosmetic goods are considered to be liquid cargo.
Ex. 36 Answer the questions.
1. What is cargo?
2. Is this term used parallel to the term ‘freight’?
3. What does the term ‘freight’ mean?
4. How many types of cargo there exist?
5. Do they depend upon the mode of transportation?
6. What are these types?
7. What categories of cargo does marine cargo include?
8. What does overweight and oversized cargo mean?
9. What cargo items does project and heavy lift cargo comprise?
10. Is bulky cargo handled by cranes?
11. What other types of marine cargo do you know?
12. Where is plane freight utilized especially?
13. Are there any advantages or disadvantages of freight train?
14. What do we transport by lorry?
15. What is dangerous cargo?
13.4 Comprehension
Ex. 37 Change Russian phrases (they are in brackets) to English ones.
1. There exist several types of cargo (ɜ ɡɚɜɢɫɢɦɨɫɬɢ ɨɬ ɫɪɟɞɫɬɜɚ ɩɟɪɟɜɨɡɤɢ).
Unit 13. Types of Cargoes 189
2. (Ȼɥɚɝɨɞɚɪɹ ɫɜɨɟɦɭ ɩɪɨɢɫɯɨɠɞɟɧɢɸ) commodities may be classified as gen-
eral, container, packaged (ɧɚɜɚɥɨɱɧɵɟ, ɨɩɚɫɧɵɟ) cargoes.
3. Containers are the largest and fastest growing cargo category (ɜ ɛɨɥɶɲɢɧɫɬɜɟ
ɩɨɪɬɨɜ ɩɨ ɜɫɟɦɭ ɦɢɪɭ).
4. (Ʉɨɧɬɟɣɧɟɪɧɵɟ ɝɪɭɡɵ) include everything from machinery components to
toys.
5. Air cargo is commonly known (ɤɚɤ ɮɪɚɯɬ).
6. There are (ɦɧɨɝɨ ɤɨɦɦɟɪɱɟɫɤɢɯ ɫɚɦɨɥɟɬɨɜ ɩɨɞɯɨɞɹɳɢɯ ɞɥɹ) carrying
cargoɟs.
7. (ɉɪɢ ɫɨɨɬɜɟɬɫɬɜɭɸɳɢɯ ɨɛɫɬɨɹɬɟɥɶɫɬɜɚɯ), freight transport by rail is more
(ɷɤɨɧɨɦɢɱɟɧ ɢ ɷɧɟɪɝɟɬɢɱɟɫɤɢ ɷɮɮɟɤɬɢɜɟɧ) than by road.
8. Rail freight is subject to (ɡɚɬɪɚɬɚɦ, ɫɜɹɡɚɧɧɵɦ ɫ ɩɟɪɟɜɚɥɤɨɣ).
9. Transshipment occurs when cargo must be transferred (ɫɨɞɧɨɝɨɫɪɟɞɫɬɜɚɩɟ-
ɪɟɞɜɢɠɟɧɢɹ ɧɚ ɞɪɭɝɨɣ).
10. (ɋɭɳɟɫɬɜɭɟɬ ɦɧɨɝɨ ɤɨɦɦɟɪɱɟɫɤɢɯ ɩɪɟɞɩɪɢɹɬɢɣ) which transport all types
of cargo.
Ex. 38 Put the verbs in brackets into the appropriate Perfect tense forms
(See “Grammar”, G.15.3).
1. I (to do) my work and I am free now.
2. They (to move) just into a new flat.
3. I don’t know what (to happen) here.
4. He (to refuse) to make the experiment because he is very busy now.
5. She (to finish) already translating the text.
6. You (to travel) ever to the North? – No, I (to be) never there.
7. You (to be) to the Hermitage? – Yes, I (to visit) it many times.
8. We (to finish) our work before he came.
9. He said he (to change) his plans.
10. The rain (to stop) and the sun was shining brightly.
11. We (to test) all the devices by yesterday.
12. By this time tomorrow I (to make) all the necessary measurements.
13. The group (to complete) the data analysis before the experiment begins.
14. He (to repair) the engine when you come.
15. The device (to stop) functioning by next week if you don’t check it.
Ex. 39 Put the verbs in brackets into the appropriate Perfect Continuous
tense forms (See “Grammar”, G.15.4).
1. It seems to me I (to ring) for an hour at least.
2. They (to play) chess for 2 days already.
3. He (to work) at his thesis for 3 years.
4. They (to discuss) this question for a long time and haven’t yet come to any
conclusion.
5. What you (to do) since our last meeting?
190 Section 4: Transport Organization
6. It (not to rain) for more than two months when suddenly the storm broke out.
7. The musician (to practise) the passage hour after hour until he mastered it at
once.
8. The committee (to work out) the program for several weeks before the final
project was approved.
9. By next September we (to test) the new equipment for 3 months.
10. He said that by next September we (to test) the new equipment for 3 months.
Ex. 40 Choose the right form of the Indefinite, Continuous, Perfect and Perfect Continuous Tenses (See “Grammar”, G.15).
1. All historical places of London … in the West End.
a) had been b) were c) are
2. The city of Montreal … 70 square miles.
a) covering b) covers c) is covered
3. The world sea surrounds the earth and … to us all.
a) is belonging b) belongs c) has belonged
4. Scientists in many different countries … to explain its mystery.
a) are working b) have worked c) worked
5. … you ever a film in which a train crashed or a ship sank?
a) Did … see b) Have … seen c) Do … see
6. It … since early morning.
a) rained b) had rained c) has been raining
7. You are a good foot-ball player. Since when … you … football?
a) have … been playing b) did … play c) had … been playing
8. My brother … music lessons for three years now.
a) have taken b) has been taking c) took
9. The student … as an apprentice to a trained worker next week.
a) works b) will work c) would work
10. What … you … at 4.30 tomorrow afternoon?
a) would … do b) were … do c) will … be doing
11. Probably, I … my friends at this time.
a) will have visited b) will be visiting c) have visited
12. Have you finished the translation yet? – I … the translation by 9 o’clock to-
morrow morning.
a) will have finished b) have finished c) had finished
13. In three months he … here a year.
a) has been b) will have been c) was
14. My friend … on the ship for 15 years by next year.
a) will have been serving b) have served c) was serving
15. By two o’clock the students will … the test translation for two hours.
a) be doing b) have been doing c) do
16. Dinosaurs … millions of years ago.
a) died out b) had died out c) were died out
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