23. Фізичне виховання.

Під фізичним вихованням розуміють спеціально організовану діяльність учителів сутність якої полягає в керівництві фізичним розвитком і освітою учнів.

Завдання фізичного виховання:

1.Гармонійний розвиток учнів з метою зміцнення їхнього здоров’я ( це відповідає фразі «У здоровому тілі здоровий дух»

2.Одержання учнями спеціальних знань в галузі фізкультури та спорту.

3.Формування умінь та навичок прикладного та спортивного характеру

4.Розвиток позитивних почуттів і позитивного відношення до занять фізкультурою та спортом.

5.Розвиток вольвих і моральних якостей особистості.

6.Засоби фізичного виховання:

7.Фізични вправи

8.Гігієнічні фактори

9.Природні фактори

Фізичні вправи підрозділяються на такі види: гімнастика, ігри, спорт і туризм. Взагалом фізичні вправи визначаються як дії , що виконуються відповідно до канонів фізичного виховання.

Гімнастика – це вид рухів , що характеризують точність , пластика, а в спортивних видах і вправність.

Ігри- це рухова діяльність , що відбуваються в умовах , що змінюються щохвилини.

Спорт характеризується руховими діями на високому рівні майстерності з метою одержання високих результатів і встановлення рекордів.

Туризм –рухова діяльність , що характеризується постійним зіткненням з природою і має пізнавальну спрямованість.

Гігієнічні фактори – це особиста гігієна людини .гігієна примищень де проводиться заняття , а також життєвих приміщень, режим харчування людини, розпорядок дня.

Природні фактори –це екологічна обстановка у ссвіті в цілому . а також екологічна обстановка в конкретному місці проживання.

Методи здійснення фізичного виховання.

1.Залучення всіх учнів до занять фізкультурою ( уроки фізри , ППк спортивні секції тощо)

2.Проведення на уроках загальноосвітніх предметів фізхвилинок ( для учнів молодшого та середнього шкільного віку)

3.Проведення заходів у масштабах класу, школи. що. пропогандуюсть зжддоровий спосіб життя

4.Проведення змагань воєнізованих ігор як у масштабах школи, так і у масштабах району та міста (з наступним нагородженням переможців)

5.Організація туристичних походів класним керівником

6.Організація різних спортивних секцій при загальноосвітніх навчальних закладах.

7.Проведення ранкової гігієнічної гімнастики або в школі або в дома.

8.Проведення рухливих ігор на подовжених перервах.

9.Прогулянки після занять

10.Проведення в школах тижнів фізкультури . що припускають організацію різних спортивних свят.

29. Педагогічні погляди Ушинського

Основа его педагогической системы — требование демократизации народного образования и идея народности воспитания.

Ушинский как методист разрабатывал вопросы содержания образования, сущность процесса обучения, принципы, частные методики обучения, создал замечательные учебники "Родное слово" и "Детский мир", которые, по словам исследователя Белявского, составили эпоху в детской педагогической литературе.

Как педагог-психолог разрабатывал психологические основы обучения, изложил систему психологических идей (дал характеристику мышления, памяти, внимания, воображения, чувств, воли).

Ушинский выступал и как школовед. Им выдвинута программа преобразования русской школы,.

Исходя из своих прогрессивных взглядов, Ушинский по-новому взглянул на педагогику как науку. Он был глубоко убеждён, что ей нужна прочная научная база. Прежде всего, по мнению Ушинского, педагогика должна опираться на научные знания о человеке, на широкий круг антропологических наук, к которым он относил анатомию, физиологию, психологию, логику, филологию, географию, политэкономию, статистику, литературу, искусство и др., среди которых особое место занимают психология и физиология.

Другой ведущей идеей, положенной в основу педагогической системы Ушинского, явилась выдвинутая им концепция народности воспитания. Отечественная педагогическая наука должна быть построена, по мнению педагога, с учетом национальных особенностей русского народа, отражать специфику национальной культуры и воспитания. В статье "О народности в общественном воспитании" Ушинский дает глубокий анализ воспитания в духе народности. Под народностью он понимает такое воспитание, которое создано самим народом и основано на народных началах. История народа, его характер и особенности, культура, географические и природные условия определяют направленность воспитания со своими, ценностями и идеалами.

Отсюда и требования:

- воспитание должно быть самобытным, национальным;

- дело народного образования должно находиться в руках самого народа, который бы занимался его организацией, руководил и управлял школой;

- народ определяет содержание и характер воспитания;

- все население должно быть охвачено просвещением, общественным воспитанием;

- воспитание женщин наравне с мужчинами;

- подлинная народность выражается, прежде всего в родном языке.

- самая живая связь, соединяющая отжившее, живущее и будущее. Родной язык является лучшим средством воспитания, который учит естественно и успешно, откуда идет духовное, нравственное и умственное развитие.

- принцип народности связан и с задачами формирования личности, и с воспитанием у детей любви к родине, своему отечеству, гуманности, правдивости, трудолюбия, ответственности, чувства долга, воли, чувства самолюбия в его правильном понимании, эстетического отношения к жизни.

- принцип народности должен быть реализован через преподавание в школе отечествоведения: истории своей страны, географии, изучение русских писателей и поэтов (литература), природы России и др.

Идея народности у Ушинского, являясь идеей демократической, определяла новый прогрессивно-творческий подход к развитию педагогики и как нельзя лучше отвечала потребностям народа и народно образования.

ТЕОРЕТИЧЕСКИЕ ВОПРОСЫ НА ЭКЗАМЕН

Phonetics

Phonological analysis of the sound structure of English phonemes. Distinctive features and oppositions Phonology is a branch of linguistics concerned with the systematic organization of sounds in languages. The principles of phonological analysis can be applied independently of modality because they are designed to serve as general analytical tools, not language-specific ones. The same principles have been applied to the analysis of sign languages (see Phonemes in sign languages), even though the sub-lexical units are not instantiated as speech sounds. On the other hand, it must be noted, it is difficult to analyze phonologically a language one does not speak, and most phonological analysis takes place with recourse to phonetic information.

The syllable as a phonetic and phonological unit: structure, types of syllables and phonotactic possibilities, functions. The syllable as a unit is difficult to define. S. is one or more speech sounds forming a single uninterrupted unit of utterance, which may be a word or a commonly recognized subdivision. It can be a single word. Phonologically the syllable is regarded and defined in terms of it’s structural and functional properties. A S. can e formed by a vowel. The S. can be analyzed from the acoustic and auditory, articulatory and functional points of view. A S. can be viewed in connection with the graphic representation.

Word stress in English: phonetic nature, degrees, functions W.S. - the stress accent on the syllables of individual words either in a sentence or in isolation. Any word spoken in isolation has as at least one prominent syllable. We call it stressed. Stress in the isolated word is termed word stress. It is indicated by placing a stress mark before the stress syllable. We may note that in the stress syllable: a) the force of utterance is greater b)the pitch of the voice is higher c)the quality of the vowel id greater and it becomes longer d) the quality of the vowel in stressed position is different in comparison with the same vowel in unstressed position. Word stress is a singling out of one or more syllables in a word which is accompanied by a change of the force of the utterance which is usually a vowel. There are as many degrees in a word as there are syllables. (ᶦmusic – muᶦsician)The function of the stress: 1.CONSTITUTIVE. WS constitutes a word, it organizes the syllables of the word into a language unit; a word doesn’t exist without the word stress 2. RECOGNITIVE. The correct accentuation helps the listener to make the communication easier, because without stresses communication prevents normal understanding; 3. DISTINCTIVE. The accentual pattern of words or degrees of word stress and their positions from the oppositions. (ᶦimport - imᶦport)

The system of English intonation: structure and functions Intonation - the sound pattern of phrases and sentences produced by pitch variation in the voice. There are 3 prosodic components of intonation – pitch, loudness, tempo. Intonational patterns: The Low-Fall, High Fall, Rise Fall, Low Rise, High Rise, Fall Rise, Rise-Fall-Rise, Mid-level patterns. These patterns may be used for intellectual, emotional, attitudinal volitional purposes.

English Phonostylistics: intonational styles and their characteristics Phonostylistics is a rapidly developing and controversial field of study though a great deal of research work has been done in it. So when linguists became involved in investigating language in use they realized that language is not an isolated phenomenon, it is a part of society. An intonational style can be defined as a system of interrelated intonational means which is used in a social sphere and serves a define aim of communication. The choice of intonational style is determined by the purposes of communication. 1.Informational. 2.Academic. 3.Publicistic 4.Declamatory 5.Conversational

Stylistics

Stylistics as a linguistic science. The basic notions of stylistics: style, form, expressive means, SD - a branch of linguistics concerned with the study of characteristic choices in use of language, esp literary language, as regards sound, form, or vocabulary, made by different individuals or social groups in different situations of use.

The functional styles of the English language. Functional Style is a system of interrelated language means serving a definite aim in communication. It is the coordination of the language means and stylistic devices which shapes the distinctive features of each style and not the language means or stylistic devices themselves.1) Official(documents and papers);2) Scientific (brochures, articles, other scientific publications);3) Publicistic (essay, public speech);4) Newspaper style(mass media); 5) Belles-lettres style(genre of creative writing);

Stylistic differentiation of the English vocabulary. The stylistic functions of neutral, bookish and colloquial words. The style of informal, friendly oral communication is called colloquial. Literary and formal in tone – bookish. child (neutral) – kid (colloq.) – infant (bookish, official) – offspring (bookish, scientific); Unlike neutral words which only denote a certain notion and thus have only a denotational meaning, their stylistic synonyms usually contain some connotations, i.e. additional components of meaning which express some emotional colouring or evaluation of the object named;

Stylistic semasiology: the figures of replacement: metaphor, metonymy, irony, hyperbole, litotes. Stylistic semasiology deals with those semantic changes andrelations, which create an additional / connotative meaning.Stylistic semasiology analyses and classifies tropes from thepoint of view of the mechanism of different semanticchanges and their stylistic functions. Metonymy- Functions and stylistic effects-to suggest a new unexpected association betweentwo objects-to create and build up imagery. Metaphor - Functions and stylistic effects - to carry out the aesthetic function (it appeals toimagination rather than gives information) - to create imagery - to make the author’s idea more concrete, definiteand transparent . Irony - Functions and stylistic effects -to show the author’s attitude to something- evaluation of the object/phenomenon-to convey a negative meaning-to express feelings of regret, irritation, displeasure. Hyperbole Functions and stylistic effects-to express the intensity of strong feelings-to show an overflow of emotions-to intensify one of the features of an object-to suggest the presence of the opposite quality-to create a humorous effect. Litotes Functions and stylistic effects-to weaken positive characteristics of an object-to express doubt/uncertainty as to the value orsignificance of the object described-to create an ironic attitude to the phenomenondescribed.

Syntactical expressive means and stylistic devices of the English language. Its expressive effect may be based on the absence of logically required components of speech - parts of the sentence, formal words or on the other hand on a superabundance of components of speech; they may be founded on an unusual order of components of speech, the change of meaning of syntactical constructions and other phenomena. Stylistic Elements are the use of any of a variety of techniques to give an auxiliary meaning, idea, or feeling to the literal or written. Adjunction Alliteration Allusion Anaphora Anticlimax Antithesis Apostrophe Assonance Hyperbole Ellipsis Oxymoron Personification Puns Metaphor Simile

Lexicology

Etymological structure of the English language. Etymology is the study of the history of words, their origins, and how their form and meaning have changed over time. English derives from Old English However, language change has eroded many grammatical elements, such as the noun case system, which is greatly simplified in modern English, and certain elements of vocabulary, some of which are borrowed from French. Although many of the words in the English lexicon come from Romance languages, most of the common words used in English are of Germanic origin.

Phraseology. In linguistics, phraseology is the study of set or fixed expressions, such as idioms, phrasal verbs, and other types of multi-word lexical units . The basic units of analysis in phraseology are often referred to as phrasemes or phraseological units. Phraseological units are (according to Prof. Kunin A.V.)[citation needed] stable word-groups with partially or fully transferred meanings

Meaning and polysemy. In linguistics, meaning is what the source or sender expresses, communicates, or conveys in their message to the observer or receiver, and what the receiver infers from the current context. A polyseme is a word or phrase with different, but related senses. English has many words which are polysemous. For example the verb "to get" can mean "procure" (I'll get the drinks), "become" (she got scared), "have" (I've got three dollars), "understand" (I get it) etc.

Word formation. In linguistics, word formation is the creation of a new word. Word formation is sometimes contrasted with semantic change, which is a change in a single word's meaning. The line between word formation and semantic change is sometimes a bit blurry; what one person views as a new use of an old word, another person might view as a new word derived from an old one and identical to it in form; see Conversion (linguistics). Word formation can also be contrasted with the formation of idiomatic expressions, though sometimes words can form from multi-word phrases; see Compound (linguistics) and Incorporation (linguistics).

The sources of replenishment of the English language

Grammar

Grammar categories of the English language. A grammatical category is an analytical class within the grammar of a language, whose members have the same syntactic distribution and recur as structural unit throughout the the language, and which share a common property which can be semantic or syntactic. A class of units (such as noun and verb) or features (such asnumber and case) that share a common set of grammaticalproperties. Aspect Case Gender Mood Number Part of Speech Person Tense VoiceWordClass

The noun: definitions, subclasses, grammar categories. -a word or group of words that refers to a person, place, or thing or any syntactically similar word. The category of case of nouns is the system of opposites (such as girl–girl's. Case is one of those categories which show the close connection: (a) between language and speech, (b) between morphology and syntax. The category of number of English nouns is the system of opposites (such as girl – girls, foot – feet, etc.)

The verb: definitions, subclasses, grammar categories. - word in a language that serves to indicate the performance of an action, the existence of a condition. Activity: play, speak, run, telephone, bathe, organise, read, raise, look at, listen to, refuse, scratch Process: ripen, change, strengthen, grow, deteriorate, become, die, go, come, fall. Sensation: hurt, ache, sting, smart, itch. This is a small class of verbs that are used to refer to bodily sensations. Momentary: knock, beat, tap, nod, hop, jump. Cognition: know, remember, perceive, prefer, want, forget, understand. Perception: see, smell, feel, taste, hear. Relational: be, consist of, own, have, seem, resemble, appear, sound, look (good), belong to

The sentence as a communicative unit of syntactical level, traditional pattern of sentence members, principles of classification. - sentence = a formation ordered according to the particular language specific rules, an abstract language unit (a part of langue) - utterance = a communicative discourse unit, a concrete realisation of a particular sentence type (a part of parole) - sentence structure (a) simple: with a single predication (b) non-simple = composite: with more predications (a') compound sentence (souv. souřadné): paratactic relation, i.e. relation of coordination (b') complex sentence (souv. podřadné): hypotactic relation, i.e. relation of subordination (c') multiple sentence (souv. složené) - clause = a part of a composite sentence - main, superordinate, clause - dependent, subordinate, clause traditional pattern of sentence members: 1.  Subject + Verb (S-V) 2.  Verb + Subject (V-S) 3.  Subject + Verb + Direct Object (S-V-DO) 4.  Subject + Verb + Complement (S-V-SC) 5.  Subject + Verb + Indirect Object + Direct Object (S-V-IO-DO) 6.  Subject + Verb + Direct Object + Object Complement (S-V-DO-OC) Classification of Sentencesexample.  “You  earn  money”  is  the  independentclause  and  “while  you  work”  is  the  dependentclause. Sentences  may  be  classified  according  tostructure   (simple,    compound,   complex,   and compound-complex    sentence.—compound-complex)  or  according  to  meaningA   compound-complex   sentence   consists   of   a(declarative,  imperative,  interrogative,  andcompound   sentence   (one   with   two   or   moreexclamatory). These classifications are discussedindependent clauses) and at least one dependentin  the  following  paragraphs.clause.  For  example:SIMPLE SENTENCE.— A simple sentence isone that consists of a single independent clauseand no subordinate clauses. The simple sentencealways  contains  one  subject  and  one  verb. COMPLEX   SENTENCE.—   The   complexsentence  is  one  that  consists  of  at  least  oneindependent  clause  and  one  or  more  dependentclauses.   Major   emphasis   is   placed   on   theindependent clause and the dependent clause gainsits  meaning  from  the  independent  clause.  Theclauses in a complex sentence that has only twoclauses  are  joined  by  a  subordinating  conjunction. COMPOUND-COMPLEX    SENTENCE.—  of   a compound   sentence   (one   with   two   or   moreexclamatory). at least one dependent clause. DECLARATIVE  SENTENCE.—  A  declara-tive sentence is one that makes a statement. Sucha  sentence  ends  with  a  period.  The  normalgrammatical  order  of  the  parts  of  a  declarativesentence   is   the   subject   first   followed   by   thepredicate  with  all  its  modifiers.

Morphology and syntax. In linguistics, morphology is the identification, analysis and description of the structure of a given language's morphemes and other linguistic units, such as words, affixes, parts of speech, intonation/stress, or implied context . In linguistics, syntax (from Ancient Greek σύνταξις "arrangement" from σύν syn, "together", and τάξις táxis, "an ordering") is "the study of the principles and processes by which sentences are constructed in particular languages.

AUTHORS FOR THE ANALYSIS

The prose of Mark Twain is full of colloquial speech. This has nothing to do with pronunciation or grammar. It has something to do with ease and freedom in the use of language. Most of all it has to do with the structure of the sentence, which is simple, direct, and fluent, maintaining the rhythm of the word-groups of speech and the intonations of the speaking voice.	Oscar Wilde. Consider elements such as tone, diction, imagery, irony, allusion, symbolism, metaphor, personification, etc.  In response to this topic, you may focus on Wilde’s use of a particular stylistic element throughout the novel.  Alternatively, you could choose one specific passage that you find interesting, and do a close reading of Wilde’s use of language in that section of text.
Jerome K. Jerome. Exploring stylistic devices one comes across various ways of expressing certain ideas, feelings, and emotions. Is wellknown for his novels, short stiroes and plays / The style of writ­ing is deter­mined, among other things, by the intended audi­ence, the sub­ject mat­ter, and the psy­cho­log­i­cal state of the writer.	Katherine Mansfield. Mansfield's stories, which reveal the influence of Chekhov, are simple in form, luminous and evocative in substance. With delicate plainness they present elusive moments of decision, defeat, and small triumph ...  I have compiled that her writing is very descriptive, has many symbols , metaphors, and tons of imagery. I find that Mansfield’s characters are warm-hearted and sensitive.  Katherine’s stories consist of every day concerns. Her aim was to make the reader see.
Daphne du Maurier.. Many of her works have been adapted into films. English novelist, biographer, and playwright, who published romantic suspense novels, mostly set on the coast of Cornwall.	J.R.R.Tolkien. preferring words with roots in Old English and such. Tolkien perceived that while the rest of the world was rich in stories and legend, England was lacking in this area. I think this goes a long way toward producing the atmosphere that he is trying to create. Tolkien wrote in a deliberately archaic style. He was a professor of linguistics, with a specialization in Anglo-Saxon and Norse languages, and he wrote in such a way as to mimic the epic poems such as Beowulf and the Norse sagas and eddas. In other writings (not LotR), he even wrote in alliterative verse! However, he introduced his own stylistic elements so as to help create his own world, distinct from the myths which were its inspiration.
John Galsworthy. However, many critics agree that as his style evolved it became less rigid and more subtle. Galsworthy's earlier style showed similarities to French naturalism, shifting later to a more deliberate use of symbolism and mythology.	Jane Austen. distinctive literary style relies on a combination of parody, burlesque, irony, free indirect speech, and a degree of realism. She uses parody and burlesque for comic effect and to critique the portrayal of women in 18th-century sentimental and gothic novels. Austen's irony is used similarly, but extends her critique, highlighting social hypocrisy. She often creates an ironic tone through free indirect speech, in which the thoughts and words of the characters mix with the voice of narrator.
Charlotte Brontë. Charlotte Bronte’s prose is rich in Symbolism and Imagery. Thus, we can speak about the so-called “word painting” technique, in which the detailed description of elements of nature relates to pivotal moments inplot.

1 The phoneme is a minimal abstract linguistic unit realized in speech in the form of speech sounds opposable to other phonemes of the same language to distinguish the meaning of morphemes and words.

the phoneme is a functional unit. In phonetics function is usually understood as a role of the various units of the phonetic system in distinguishing one morpheme from another, one word from another or one utterance from another. The opposition of phonemes in the same phonetic environment differentiates the meaning of morphemes and words: e.g. bath-path, light-like.

the phoneme is material, real and objective. That means it is realized in speech in the form of speech sounds, its allophones. The phonemes constitute the material form of morphemes, so this function may be called constitutive function.

the phoneme performs the recognitive function, because the use of the right allophones and other phonetic units facilitates normal recognition.

2 Being the smallest pronounceable units, syllables form morphemes, words and phrases. Each of these units is characterized by a certain syllabic structure. Syllable formation in English is based on the phonological opposition vowel - consonant. Many syllables have one or more consonants preceding the nucleus. These make up the syllable onset: me, so, plow.

Many syllables have one or more consonants, following the nucleus. They make up the syllable coda. They are traditionally known as closed syllables: cat, jump.

two functions of the syllable.The first is constitutive function. It lies in its ability to be a part of a word itself. The syllables form language units of greater magnitude that is words, morphemes, and utterances. The other function is distinctive one. In this respect the syllable is characterized by its ability to differentiate words and word-forms. an aim - a name; an ice house - a nice house, I saw the meat — I saw them eat.

3 The syllable or syllables which are uttered with more prominence than the other syllables of the word are said to be stressed or accented. Stress in the isolated word is termed word stress; stress in connected speech is termed sentence stress. a stressed syllable is the part of the word which has a special prominence. It is produced by a greater loudness and length, modifications in the pitch and quality. The physical correlates are: intensity, duration, frequency English word stress is traditionally defined as dynamic, but in fact, the special prominence of the stressed syllables is manifested in the English language not only through the increase of intensity, but also through the changes in the vowel quantity, consonant and vowel quality and pitch of the voice. There are actually as many degrees of stress in a word as there are syllables. The British linguists usually distinguish three degrees of stress in the word. The primary stress is the strongest, it is marked by number 1, the secondary stress is the second strongest marked by 2. All the other degrees are termed weak stress. Unstressed syllables are supposed to have weak stress.

Word stress in a language performs three functions.1. constitutive function - Word stress constitutes a word, it organizes the syllables of a word into a language unit having a definite accentual structure. 2. recognitive - Word stress enables a person to identify a succession of syllables as a definite accentual pattern of a word. 3. Word stress alone is capable of differentiating the meaning of words or their forms, thus performing its distinctive function. 'import — im'port

4 Intonation is a language universal. There are no languages which are spoken without any change of prosodic parameters but intonation functions in various languages in a different way. There are two main approaches to the problem of intonation in Great Britain. One is known as a contour analysis and the other may be called grammatical. a large group of phoneticians: H. Sweet, D. Jones, G. Palmer, L. Armstrong, I. Ward, R. Kingdon, J. O'Connor, A. Gimson.

D. Crystal distinguishes the following functions of intonation.

• Emotional function's most obvious role is to express attitudinal meaning -sarcasm, surprise, impatience, delight, anger, interest • Grammatical function helps to identify grammatical structure in speech, such as question/statement • Informational function helps draw attention to what meaning is given and what is new in an utterance. • Textual function helps larger units of meaning than the sentence to contrast and cohere. • Psychological function helps us to organize speech into units that are easier to perceive and memorize.

5 Phonostylistics

Phonostylistics – phonetical organization of prose and poetic texts. Here are included rhythm, rhythmical structure, rhyme, alliteration, assonance and correlation of the sound form and meaning. Also studies deviation in normative pronunciation.

Loudness, pauses, rhythm

Styles of speech or pronunciation are those special forms of speech suited to the aim and the contents of the utterance, the circumstances of communication, the character of the audience, etc. As D. Jones points out, a person may pronounce the same word or sequence of words quite differently under different circumstances.

Intonational styles

Intonational style – a system of interrelated intonational means which is used in a social sphere and serves s definite aim of communication.

Stylistic use of intonation:

1) Informational - in press reporting, educational descriptive texts. May be represented in monologues, dialogues, polylogues.

2) Academic (scientific)- style of lectures (conferences, seminars). It is determined by the purpose of communication as the speaker*s aim is to attract the listener*s attention, to establish close contacts with the audience and to direct the public attention to the message carried in the contents of the text.

3) Publicistic (oratorial)-this term serves for many kinds of oratorial activities (especially this style uses in political speeches).

4) Declamatory (artistic)- this is the style of declamation. This is a highly emotional and expressive intonational style that is why it needs special training. Attitudinal, volitional and intellectual functions of intonation are of primary importance here and serve to appeal to the mind, will and feelings of the listener.

5) Conversational (familiar) - this kind of English is a means for everyday communication, heard in natural conversational interaction between speakers. This style occurs mainly in informal external and internal relationships in speech of relatives, friends…

6 Stylistics is a branch of linguistics which deals with expressive resources and functional styles of a language.

Types of stylistics. Linguo-stylistics is a science of functional styles and expressive potential of a language. Communicative (decoding) stylistics describes expressive peculiarities of certain messages (texts). Coding stylistics (literary stylistics) deals with individual styles of authors. Contrastive stylis-tics investigates stylistic systems of two or more languages in comparison.

The notion of functional style. One and the same thought may be worded in more than one way. This diversity is predetermined by coexist-ence of separate language subsystems, elements of which stand in relations of interstyle synonymy. Compare: I am afraid lest John should have lost his way in the forest (bookish) = I fear John's got lost in the wood (conversational). Such language subsystems are called "functional styles". Functional style units are capable of transmitting some additional informa-tion about the speaker and the objective reality in which communication takes place, namely the cultural and educational level of the speaker, his inner state of mind, intentions, emotions and feelings, etc. The most traditionally accepted functional styles are the style of official and business communication, the style of scientific prose, the newspaper style, the publicistic style, the belletristic style, the conversational style. The style a writer or speaker adopts depends partly on his own person-ality but very largely on what he has to say and what his purposes are. It follows that style and subject matter should match each other appropriately. Just how important it is to choose an appropriate style can be seen by examining the following three sentences, which all say the same thing but in different ways: John's dear parent is going to his heavenly home (bookish). John's father is dying (literary colloquial). John's old fella's on his way out (informal colloquial). Though these sentences say the same thing, the style is very different in each.

The notion of norm. Norm may be defined as a set of language rules which are considered to be most standard and correct in a certain epoch and in a certain society. It is next to impossible to work out universal language norms because each functional style has its own regularities. The sentence "I ain't got no news from nobody" should be treated as non-grammatical from the point of view of literary grammar though it is in full accordance with special colloquial English grammar rules.

The notion of expressive means. Expressive means of a language are those phonetic, lexical, morphological and syntactic units and forms which make speech emphatic. Expressive means introduce connotational (stylistic, non-denotative) meanings into utterances. Phonetic expressive means include pitch, melody, stresses, pauses, whispering, singing, and other ways of using human voice. Morphological expressive means are emotionally coloured suffixes of diminutive nature: -y (-ie), -let (sonny auntie, girlies). To lexical expressive means belong words, possessing connotations, such as epithets, poetic and archaic words, slangy words, vulgarisms, and interjections. A chain of expressive synonymic words always contains at least one neutral synonym. For ex-le, the neutral word money has the following stylistically coloured equivalents: ackers (slang), cly (jargon), cole (jargon), gelt (jargon), moo (amer. slang), etc. A chain of expressive synonyms used in a single utterance creates the effect of climax (gradation). To syntactic expressive means belong emphatic syntactic constructions. Such constructions stand in opposition to their neutral equivalents. The neu-tral sentence "John went away" may be replaced by the following expres¬sive variants: "Away went John" (stylistic inversion), "John did go away" (use of the emphatic verb "to do"), "John went away, he did" (emphatic confirmation pattern), "It was John who went away" ("It is he who does it" pattern).

The notion of stylistic devices. Stylistic devices (tropes, figures of speech) unlike expressive means are not language phenomena. They are formed in speech and most of them do not exist out of context. According to principles of their formation, stylistic devices are grouped into phonetic, lexico-semantic and syntactic types. Basically, all stylistic devices are the result of revaluation of neutral words, word-combinations and syntactic structures. Revaluation makes language units obtain connotations and stylistic value. A stylistic de¬vice is the subject matter of stylistic semasiology.

7 According to Galperin the term ‘style’ refers to the following spheres: 1) the aesthetic function of language - It may be seen in works of art- poetry, imaginative prose, fiction, but works of science, technical instruction or business correspondence have no aesthetic value. 2) synonymous ways of rendering one and the same idea 3) expressive means in language 4) emotional coloring in language 5) a system of special devices called stylistic devices 6) the individual manner of an author in making use Galperin distinguishes five styles in present-day English: I. Belles Lettres (Poetry, Emotive prose, The Drama) III. Publicistic Style (. Oratory and Speeches, The Essay, Articles) IV. Newspapers (. Headlines, Advertisements and Announcements) V. Scientific Prose VI. Official Documents Newspaper style is to give information, to influence, to represent social, political idea, means of pursuage. Its important to concentrate. That is why the text of newspaper style should be organized in the certain style. It must contain elements of stylistic colored words and have certain graphic organization. The use of political words and expressions, cliches, colloquial words, slang, professionalisms, large amount of stylistic devises, various graphical means.

Belles – Lettres style is so many colored. It includes features of all the styles if it necessary. The author uses proffessional words of all levels. The basic function – informative and aesthetic. official style is the language of business documents, the language of legal documents, diplomacy, military,has very strict organization. All the words are used in the dictionary meanings, a large number of abbreviation, terms, cliches. Publicistic style in the past it named oratoric style. The aim of the style also influence of public opinion. Bravity of expression, strong logic, strict organization of syntactical structure and a wide system of syntactical connection; the use of colloquial words, neutral, direct address to the audience. Scientific style is the style of reporting and conveying serious scientific idea. Here are included seminars, sc. Articles, discussions, brochures, all kinds of academic publications. The aim is to prove a hypothesis. The use of large number of terms.

8 English vocabulary is subdivided into formal, informal, neautral. Formal words: Poetic words-constitute the highest level of the scale; it demonstrates the maximum of aesthetic value. Arhaic words, This words are practically unknown to the public at large. e. g. knight. Bookishwords –the words thus called are used as their name shows, in cultivated spheres of speech: in books or in such types of oral communication as public speeches, official negotiations, and so on. Bookish words are either formal synonyms of ordinary neutral words. e. g. respond and answer, individual and man. Barbarism, or foreign words. e. g. From french (bouquet, garage). Neologisms, or new creations.

Informal words: Colloquial words demonstrate the minimal degree of stylistic degradation. They are words with a tinge of informality or familiarity about them. they cannot be used in formal speech. Jargon words. These appear in professional or social groups as informal. We distinguish students’ , musicians’, lowers’, soldiers jargon and so on. Slang. Slang is part of the vocabulary consisting of commonly understood and widely used words and expression of humorous character e.g. money: jack, tin, Vulgar words. This stylistically lowest group consists of words which are considered too offensive for polite usage.

9 stylistic device is the use of any of a variety of techniques to give an auxiliary meaning, idea, or feeling to the literal or written. there are 5 levels of stylistic devices: phonetic, graphical, lexical, syntactical, lexico-syntactic. Lexical – interrelation of different meaning of one word of connotative meanings of different words. Metaphor, metonymy, antonomasia, hyperbole, , oxymoron Metathor – . use of words (word combinations) in transferred meanings by way of similarity or analogy. Antonomasia – (a variant of METAPHOR) a trope which consists in the use of a proper name to denote a different person who possesses some qualities of the primary owner of the name: *(Every Caesar has his Brutus

Hyperbole – a trope which consists in a deliberate exaggeration (умышленное преувеличение) of a feature essential to an object or phenomenon. * (Her family is one aunt about a thousand years old

Litotes – (a variant of PERIPHRASIS) a figure of speech which consists in the affirmation of the contrary by negation : *(the wedding was no distant event)

Metonymy is used to represent the whole of an abstract idea. The word 'crown' may be used metonymically to refer to the king or queen, and at times to the law of the land.

A simile is a comparison used to attract the reader's attention and describe something in descriptive terms. Irony-there is a sharp incongruity or discordance that goes beyond the simple and evident intention of words or actions. Ironic statements (verbal irony) typically imply a meaning in opposition to their literal meaning.

10 stylistic device is the use of any of a variety of techniques to give an auxiliary meaning, idea, or feeling to the literal or written. there are 5 levels of stylistic devices: phonetic, graphical, lexical, syntactical, lexico-syntactic. Syntactical – is based on the arrangement of the members of the sentence, on the completence-incompletence of sentence structure. Inversion, detachment, ellipsis, f. polysindeton, syndeton, rhetorical question

Inversion is used to give emphasis or to be rhetorical No sooner had I reached the door than I realised it was locked.

Polysyndeton - a figure of speech which consists in the combination of Homogeneous (однородных) parts of sentence by mean of the same conjunction: * (and of the golden lyre, And of the golden hair…) Syndeton is the repeated use of conjunctions. I want Sue and Jim and Terry and Mark to be on my team. A rhetorical question is a figure of speech in the form of a question posed for its persuasive effect without the expectation of a reply.

12 describes the context in which a word is used. This often includes typical usages and sequences, such as idioms, phrasal verbs, and multi-word lexical units. Phraseological units are stable word-groups with partially or fully transferred meanings ("to kick the bucket", “Greek gift”, “drunk as a fiddler (drunk as a lord

Vinogradov’s classification of phraseological units: a) phraseological combinations - are word - groups with a partially changed meaning. They may be said to be  clearly motivated, that is the meaning of the units can be easily deduced from the meanings of its constituents. Ex. to be good at smth., to have a bite…. b) unities - are word - groups with a completely changed meaning, that is, the meaning of the unit doesn’t correspond to the meanings of its constituent parts. Ex. to loose one’s head (to be out of one’s mind), to loose one’s heart to smb.(to fall in love). c) fussions - are word - groups with a completely changed meaning but, in contrast to the units, they are demotivated, that is, their meaning can’t be deduced from the meanings of its constituent parts. Ex. to come a cropper(to come to disaster).

12. Phraseology

In linguistics, phraseology describes the context in which a word is used. This often includes typical usages and sequences, such as idioms, phrasal verbs, and multi-word lexical units.Phraseology appeared in the domain of lexicology and is undergoing the process of segregating as a separate branch of linguistics.[citation needed] Lexicology deals with words and their meanings, whereas phraseology studies such collocations of words (phraseologisms, phraseological units, idioms), where the meaning of the whole collocation is different from the simple sum of literal meanings of the words, comprising a phraseological unit. F.e. ‘Dutch auction’ is not an auction taking place in Netherlands. The meaning of this phraseological unit refers to any auction, where instead of rising, the prices fall (compare “Dutch comfort”, “Dutch courage”, “Dutch treat” reflecting complicated historical factors). Phraseological units are (according to Prof. Kunin A.V.) stable word-groups with partially or fully transferred meanings ("to kick the bucket", “Greek gift”, “drink till all's blue”, “drunk as a fiddler (drunk as a lord, as a boiled owl)”, “as mad as a hatter (as a march hare)”). According to Rosemarie Gläser, a phraseological unit is a lexicalized, reproducible bilexemic or polylexemic word group in common use, which has relative syntactic and semantic stability, may be idiomatized, may carry connotations, and may have an emphatic or intensifying function in a text [Gläser 1998: 125].

13. Polysemes

A polyseme is a word or phrase with different, but related senses. Since the test for polysemy is the vague concept of relatedness, judgments of polysemy can be difficult to make. Because applying pre-existing words to new situations is a natural process of language change, looking at words' etymology is helpful in determining polysemy but not the only solution; as words become lost in etymology, what once was a useful distinction of meaning may no longer be so. Some apparently unrelated words share a common historical origin, however, so etymology is not an infallible test for polysemy, and dictionary writers also often defer to speakers' intuitions to judge polysemy in cases where it contradicts etymology. English has many words which are polysemous. For example the verb "to get" can mean "procure" (I'll get the drinks), "become" (she got scared), "have" (I've got three dollars), "understand" (I get it) etc.

14. Word formation

In linguistics, word formation is the creation of a new word. Word formation is sometimes contrasted with semantic change, which is a change in a single word's meaning. The line between word formation and semantic change is sometimes a bit blurry; what one person views as a new use of an old word, another person might view as a new word derived from an old one and identical to it in form; see Conversion (linguistics). Word formation can also be contrasted with the formation of idiomatic expressions, though sometimes words can form from multi-word phrases; see Compound (linguistics) and Incorporation (linguistics).

16 Grammar categories of the English ten varieties of grammar Comparative Grammar The analysis and comparison of the grammatical structures of related languages. Generative GrammarThe rules determining the structure and interpretation of sentences that speakers accept as belonging to the language.Mental Grammar The generative grammar stored in the brain that allows a speaker to produce language that other speakers can understand. Pedagogical Grammar Grammatical analysis and instruction designed for second-language students. Performance Grammar A description of the syntax of English as it is actually used by speakers in dialogues. Reference GrammarA description of the grammar of a language, with explanations of the principles governing the construction of words, phrases, clauses, and sentences. Theoretical Grammar The study of the essential components of any human language. Traditional Grammar The collection of prescriptive rules and concepts about the structure of the language. Transformational GrammarA theory of grammar that accounts for the constructions of a language by linguistic transformations and phrase structures Universal Grammar The system of categories, operations, and principles shared by all human languages and considered to be innate.

17 The noun is a word expressing substance in the widest sence of the word. Nouns cab be counted have two numbers: singular and plural. Nouns have 2 case forms: the common case and the genitive case. Nouns can be :1) Simple – nouns which have neither prefixes nor suffixes ( chair, table, room) 2) Derivative – nouns which have derivative elements ( readers, blackness, childhood) 3) Compound nouns – 2 or more stems.( appletree, bluebell,) Classification of nouns : 1) Proper nouns – individual names, given to certain person or thing. 2) Common nouns – names that can be applied to any individual of a class of persons or things ( man, dog , book), collections of similar individuals (family, poetry) materials( iron, snow), abstrack notions ( kindness).

18 The verb is a part of speech which denotes an action.The verb has the following grammatical categories : person. Number, tence, aspect. Voice and mood. These categories can be expressed by means of affixes, inner flexion(change of the root vowel) and by form words. Verbs may be transitive and intransitive. Verbs have finite forms which can be ased as the predicate of a sentence and non – finite forms which cannot be used as the predicate of sentence. Verbs are divided into: 1) simple, (read, speak) 2) derived having affixes (magnify) 3) compound, of two stems ( daydream) 4) composite consisting of a verb and postposition of adverbial origin( sit down, go away)The basic forms of the verb in Modern English are :the Infinitive, the Past Indefinite and Participle II : to speak – spoke – spoken

Verbs are divided into : 1) regular verbs – (ed) 2)Irregular verbs - chage their root vowel 3) Mixed verbs – to show – showed - shown. Verbs are divided into: 1) Notional verbs – have a full meaning, can be used without any additional words as a simle predicate ( to write, to speak) 2) Auxiliary verbs – have lost their meaning, used only as form words having only a grammatical function. ( to do, to be, will, may)

19 The sentence, pattern of sentence members, principles of classification

The sentence is unit of speech built up words according to a definite syntactic   pattern and distinguished by a contextually relevant communicative purpose.From the point of view of their structure sentences can be divided into: two-membered (double-nucleus); one-membered (single-nucleus); complete; incomplete; simple; composite (compound, complex).Simple sentences. Two-membered sentence contains two principle parts - the subject and the predicate. (Fleur had established immediate contact with an architect).A two-membered sentence can be complete and incomplete. It is complete when it has a subject and a predicate (Young John could not help smiling). It is incomplete when one of the principal parts or both of them are missing, but can be easily understood from the context. Such sentences are called elliptical and they are mostly used in colloquial speech and especially in dialogue (Where were you yesterday? At the cinema).One-membered sentence have only one principal part (Dusk - of a summer night).Simple sentences, both two-membered and one-membered can be unextended and extended. A sentence consisting only of the primary or principle parts is called an unextended sentence. She is a student. Birds fly. Winter!An extended sentence is a sentence consisting of the subject, predicate and one or more secondary parts (objects, attributes, adverbial modifiers).  The two native woman stole furtive glances at Sarie.Composite sentence is formed by two or more predicative groups. Being a polypredicative construction, it expresses   a complicated thought reflecting two or more elementary situational events.Each predicative unit in a composite sentence makes up a clause in it that corresponds to a separate sentence as a part  of a contextual sequence.Composite sentence displays two principal types of the connection of clauses - subordination and coordination.According to the traditional view, all composite sentences are to be classed into:compound sentences (coordinating their clauses),complex (subordinating their clauses).A compound sentence is a sentence which consists of two or more clauses coordinated with each other. In a compound sentence the clauses may be connected:1) syndetically, i.e. by means of coordinating conjunctions (and, or, else, but, etc.) or conjunctive adverbs (otherwise, however, nevertheless, yet, still, therefore, etc.)E.g. The darkness was thinning, but the street was still dimly lighted.2) asyndetically, i.e. without a conjunction or conjunctive adverb.E.g.  The rain fell softly, the house was quiet.The main semantic relations between the clauses connected coordinativety are copulative, adversative, disjunctive, casual, consequental, resultative.A complex sentence is a polypredicative construction built up on the principle of subordination. Clauses in a complex sentence may be linked in two ways:1) Syndetically, i.e. by means of subordinating conjunctions or connectives.E.g.  more and more, she became convinced that some misfortune had overtaken Paul.2) Asyndetically, i.e. without a conjunction or connective.E.g.  I wish you had come earlier.A subordinate clause may follow, interrupt or precede the principal clause.According to the grammatical function subordinate clauses can be divided into: subject, predicative, object and adverbial (of time, place, purpose, cause, condition, concession, result, manner, comparison)

20 Morphology and syntax Morphology is the study of morphemes. Morphemes are words, word stems, and affixes, basically the unit of language one up from phonemes. they are usually considered a part of a language's syntax or grammar. Most languages, but especially agglutinating and inflexional ones, differentiate between the stem of the word, which carries the basic meaning, and various affixes or attachments that carry additional, often grammatical, meanings.  There are several kinds of affixes: Suffixes are attached to the end of the stem; Prefixes are attached to the front of the stem;  Infixes are put in the middle of the word; Ablaut is a change in a vowel that carries extra meaning;  Reduplication is a matter of doubling a syllable to do the same.

In linguistics, the study of the rules that govern the ways in which words combine to form phrases, clauses, and sentences. Syntax is one of the major components of grammar. Syntax is the study of the principles and rules for constructing sentences in natural languages.

21 The comparative historical method R.Rask, F.Bopp, J.Grimm

In linguistics, the comparative method is a technique for studying the development of languages by performing a feature-by-feature comparison of two or more languages, as opposed to the method of internal reconstruction, which analyzes the internal development of a single language over time.Ordinarily both methods are used together to reconstruct prehistoric phases of languages, to fill in gaps in the historical record of a language, to discover the development of phonological, morphological, and other linguistic systems, and to confirm or refute hypothesized relationships between languages.

The comparative method was developed over the 19th century. Key contributions were made by the Danish scholars Rasmus Rask and Karl Verner and the German scholar Jacob Grimm. The first linguist to offer reconstructed forms from a proto-language was August Schleicher, in his Compendium der vergleichenden Grammatik der indogermanischen Sprachen, originally published in 1861. The comparative method aims to prove that two or more historically attested languages are descended from a single proto-language by comparing lists of cognate terms. From them, regular sound correspondences between the languages are established, and a sequence of regular sound changes can then be postulated, which allows the proto-language to be reconstructed. Relation is deemed certain only if at least a partial reconstruction of the common ancestor is feasible, and if regular sound correspondences can be established with chance similarities ruled out.

22 Germanic lanquages constitute a sub-branch of the Indo-European (IE) language family.

The most widely spoken Germanic languages are English and German, with approximately 300–400 million 100 million native speakers respectively. The group includes other major languages, such as Dutch with 23 millionand Afrikaans with over 6 million native speakers and the North Germanic languages including Norwegian, Danish, Swedish, Icelandic, and Faroese with a combined total of about 20 million speakers.53 different Germanic languages.

Germanic languages possess several unique features, such as the following:

1. A large class of verbs that use a dental suffix (/d/ or /t/) instead of vowel alternation (Indo-European ablaut) to indicate past tense;

2. The consonant shift known as Grimm's Law

3. The sound change known as Verner's Law

4. The shifting of word stress onto word stems and later onto the first syllable of the word

All living Germanic languages belong either to the West Germanic or to the North Germanic branch. The West Germanic group is the larger by far, further subdivided into Anglo-Frisian on one hand, and Continental West Germanic on the other. Anglo-Frisian notably includes English and all its variants, while Continental West Germanic includes German (standard register and dialects) as well as Dutch (standard register and dialects).

23 Old English The Germanic dialects combined to form what is now called Old English. The most famous surviving work from the Old English period is the epic poem Beowulf composed by an unknown poet.

Old English did not sound or look like the Standard English of today. Any native English speaker of today would find Old English unintelligible without studying it as a separate language. Nevertheless, about half of the most commonly used words in Modern English have Old English roots. The words be, strong and water, for example, derive from Old English.Old English was spoken until sometime in the 12th or 13th century. English words of Old Norse origin include anger, bag, both, hit, law, leg, same, skill, sky, take, and many others, possibly even including the pronoun they.

The Old English period formally ended sometime after the Norman conquest ( in 1066, when the language was influenced to an even greater extent by the Norman-speaking Normans.

24 Middle English For about 300 years following the Norman Conquest in 1066, the Norman kings and their high nobility spoke only one of the langues d'oïl called Anglo-Norman.Middle English was influenced by both Anglo-Norman and, later, Anglo-French

Even after the decline of Norman, French retained the status of a formal or prestige language and had (with Norman) a significant influence on the language, which is visible in Modern English today .A tendency for Norman-derived words to have more formal connotations has continued to the present day; most modern English speakers would consider a "cordial reception" (from French) to be more formal than a "hearty welcome" (Germanic). Another example is the very unusual construction of the words for animals being separate from the words for their meat: e.g., beef and pork (from the Norman bœuf and porc) being the products of 'cows' and 'pigs', animals with Germanic names.

The most famous writer from the Middle English period was Geoffrey Chaucer, and The Canterbury Tales is his best-known work.

The Provisions of Oxford, released in 1258, was the first English government document to be published in the English language since the Conquest. In 1362, Edward III became the first king to address Parliament in English. By the end of that century, even the royal court had switched to English. Anglo-Norman remained in use in limited circles somewhat longer, but it had ceased to be a living language.

English spelling was also influenced by Norman in this period, with the /θ/ and /ð/ sounds being spelled th rather than with the Old English letters þ (thorn) and ð (eth), which did not exist in Norman. These letters remain in the modern Icelandic alphabet, which is descended from the alphabet of Old Norse.

25. Early New English is traditionally distinguished in the history of the

language because it was in this period that the rest of the grammatical

categories came into use, the last systematic and cardinal change in the

sound system occurred, shifting the real sound form of the words from the spelling to almost the present-day state. Modern English is often dated from the Great Vowel Shift, which took place mainly during the 15th century. English was further transformed by the spread of a standardised London-based dialect in government and administration and by the standardising effect of printing. By the time of William Shakespeare (mid-late 16th century), the language had become clearly recognizable as Modern English. In 1604, the first English dictionary was published, the Table Alphabeticall.English has continuously adopted foreign words, especially from Latin and Greek, since the Renaissance. (In the 17th century, Latin words were often used with the original inflections, but these eventually disappeared). As there are many words from different languages and English spelling is variable, the risk of mispronunciation is high, but remnants of the older forms remain in a few regional dialects, most notably in the West Country.

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