Rendering an article. (Переказ статті/тексту).
Дана стаття – the given article
Тема – the theme (subject-matter)
Основна проблема – the main problem
Мета – the purpose
Проблеми, пов’язані з – problems relating to; problems of
Аналогіно – similary; likewise
Тому, в результаті – hence; therefore
Навпаки – on the contrary
Крім того – besides; also; again; in addition; furthermore
Спочатку – at first
Далі – next; further; then
В кінці - finally
Коротко – in short; in brief
Мета написання статті/тексту:
The object (purpose) of this paper (article) is to present (to discuss, to describe, to show, to develop, to give)…
The paper (article) puts forward the idea (attempts to determine)…
Питання, що піднімаються в статті:
The paper (article) discusses some problems relating to (deals with some aspects of, considers the problem of, presents the basic theory, provides information, reviews the basic principles of)…
The paper (article) is concerned with (is devoted to)…
Початок статті/тексту:
The paper (article) begins with a short discussion on (deals firstly with the problem of)…
The first paragraph deals with…
First (at first, at the beginning) the author points out that (notes that, describes)…
Перехід до переказу наступної частини:
Then follows a discussion on…
Then the author goes on to the problem of…
The next (following) paragraph deals with (presents, discusses, describes)…
After discussing… the author turns to…
Next (further, then) the author tries to (indicates that, explains that)…
It must be emphasized that (should be noted that, is evident that, is clear that, is interesting to note that)…
Кінець переказу статті/тексту:
The final paragraph states (describes, ends with)…
The conclusion is that the problem is…
The author concludes that (summarizes the)…
To sum up (to summarize, to conclude) the author emphasizes (points out, admits) that…
Finally (in the end) the author admits (emphasizes) that…
Висловлювання власної думки:
In my opinion (to my mind, I think)…
The paper (article) is interesting (not interesting), of importance (of little importance), valuable (invaluable), up-to-date (out-of-date), useful (useless)…
Тексти для домашнього читання
Text 1.
In economics, factors of production are the resources employed to produce goods and services. They facilitate production but do not become part of the product (as with raw materials) or are significantly transformed by the production process (as with fuel used to power machinery). To 19th century economists, the factors of production were land (natural resources, gifts from nature), labor (the ability to work), and capital goods (human-made tools and equipment). Recent textbooks have added entrepreneurship and "human capital" (labor's education and skills). "Land" can include ecosystems while sometimes the overall state of technology is seen as a factor of production. In any event, it is the scarcity of the factors of production which poses humanity's economic problem, often forcing us to choose between competing goals. The number and definition of factors varies, depending on theoretical purpose, empirical emphasis, or school of economics. Differences are most stark when it comes to deciding which factor is the most important. For example, in the Austrian view -- often shared by neoclassical and other "free market" economists -- the primary factor of production is the time of the entrepreneur, which, when combined with other factors, determines the amount of output of a particular good or service. However, other authors argue that "entrepreneurship" is nothing but a specific kind of labor or human capital and should not be treated separately. The Marxian school goes further, seeing labor (in general, including entrepreneurship) as the primary factor of production, since it is required to produce capital goods and to utilize the gifts of nature. It is unlikely that this difference of opinions between the "Austrians" and the Marxists will be ended soon. But this debate is more about basic economic theory (the role of the factors in the economy) than it is about the definition of the factors of production.
Text 2
Research in the United States suggests that a teenager is exposed to up to 3000 television ads a day. The huge growth of satellite channels and the introduction of the TiVo box, which can record programmes while filtering out the ads, has reduced the reach of the television commercial even more. As a result, brands are turning increasingly to undercover marketing. In America, actresses are hired to go into bars to offer strangers particular brands of alcohol, cigarettes or snacks. They never reveal the truth of their mission, but the intentions are to help foster a feel-good image for their corporate employers. This stealth advertising is aimed particularly at young consumers who are no longer influenced by the heavy sell with which they have grown up.
Britain is not far behind the USA with this technique. Last night in London, party lovers could listen on their mobile phones to a list of places to go out under the slogan “Sol on a mission”. When they relax in front of the soap opera “Hollyoaks”, they will see actors drinking from the bottles of Sol Mexican beer. It is all part of a $1m campaign by Sol. “Today’s youth are very cynical”, said Zoe Smith, Sol’s brand manager in Britain. “You cannot be too obvious. They like something a little bit different that challenges them”.
Text 3
There are a lot of reasons that make people think about owning a business of their own. Personal independence, unlimited profit potential, the opportunity to work at something that they reslly love are some of the reasons.
A common way to learn about a business, and the opportunities for starting one similar to it, is to learn while working for someone else. It provides a source of steady income to people while they are planning to start their own business. About 50 per cent of entrepreneurs start their business in industries in which they have some experience.
Small businesses face many problems. Bad economic times affect small business. In addition, small business profits tend to fall faster, and small businesses are more likely to fail.
What are the problems that face small business now? The main problems facing small business are taxes, slow sales, The high cost of borrowing money and competition.
A corporation is one kind of business organization. Other kinds of business organizations are sole proprietorships and partnerships. Sole proprietorships are the most numerous kinds of business organization. The reason for their popularity is that they are the easiest and least costly to organize.
Sole proprietors own all the profits of their enterprises, and they are their “own bosses”, free to make whatever changes they please. They have minimal legal restrictions and do not have to pay the special taxes placed on corporations.
There are also disadvantages. A very serious one is the unlimited liability that each proprietor faces. All debts and all problems associated with the business belong to the owner.
A partnership is a business organization that is owned by two or more persons.
A partnership is a organization that is owned by two or more persons. Partnerships offer certain advantages over sole proprietorships:
- Partners bring additional funds to a proprietorship.
- Partners can bring fresh ideas and talents to business organizations.
Text 4
Having recently gained its independence, Ukraine is a country comparable in geographical size and population to Italy and France. The country possesses numerous competitive strengths, namely a strategic geographical position and mild climate, rich natural resources, sizeable consumer market, highly educated labour force and well developed transport infrastructure.
However, the Ukrainian economy is currently in a critical position. This is due to the fact that the economy of Ukraine was previously quite isolated, not oriented towards satisfying the national interest of the country. The pricing policy was basically inappropriate because the prices for raw materials and fuel supply were very low and were not stimulating their rational use and the introduction of high technology to industry.
Prior to independence, inter-republic trade accounted for more than 80 per cent of total “exports” and “imports”.
Upon gaining independence in 1991, Ukraine has become an equal member of the international community. There is little doubt that the economic, scientific and human potential of Ukraine is one of the most promising in Europe and offers many business and investment opportunities. Attraction of new investments in the Ukrainian economy, including foreign investments, is one of the effective ways of overcoming this situation.
Relations associated with foreign investments in Ukraine are regulated by a number of Ukrainian laws.
Text 5
Winston Churchill, former prime minister of Great Britain, stated in 1946 that postwar Europe needed a “…sovereign remedy… to recreate the European family, or as much of it as we can, and provide it with a structure under which it can dwell in peace and safety and freedom. We must build a kind of United States of Europe”.
Jean Monnet, who held a number of different positions in the French government and is credited as the founding father of the EU, said that “the states of Europe must form a federation”. George Marshall, Secretary of State for the United States, supported this concept as a way to rebuild Europe after World War 2 and to enable the United States to work with both the victors and the vanquished in Europe as strong strategic allies. They hoped this type of partnership would obviate the possibility of a third world war.
The EU was preceded by several earlier and less ambitious attempts at regional cooperation. The European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC), established in 1952, included the six founding countries and centered on combined price and output controls, investment subsidies, tariff protection, and competition rules. The ECSC and the respective governments were instrumental in rebuilding the industries after the war and in protecting those industries from competition.
Text 6
The earliest trade was the caravan trade across the deserts of Asia around 2500 BC to and from cities in Mesopotamia, Egypt, and Arabia. These caravans had to carry fodder for the animals and food for the drivers and merchants. Not much space was left for the cargo. As a result, the goods carried were light but valuable, things such as gold and precious stones – that is, luxuries and not necessities.
After this, trade by sea started to become more common.
Athens was the first big commercial city in Europe, and it was the first community to import and export necessities in large quantities. Grain was imported for the increasing population from the shores of the Black Sea, and exports included figs, olive oil, wine, honey, pottery, and textile.
The Roman Empire (27 BC – 476 AD) was the next big trading community. Increasing quantities of luxuries were imported from the East and from North Africa. Imports included tin, slaves, cloth, and jewels. The Romans also traded with China, and brought back silkworms to start a silk industry in Europe.
In the fifth century AD, Byzantium (later called Constantinople and now Istanbul) became the political capital of the Roman Empire, and remained the world’s commercial capital until the 12th century.
In the 12th and 13th centuries, Venice and Genoa became the world’s leading trade centers. In 1271, the Venetian, Marco Polo, went by land and sea to China and helped establish trading links. Venice was well placed to be the main European commercial center.
The modern World began as the “Age of Discoveries”.
Text 7
Economics is the social science that studies the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services. The term economics comes from the Ancient Greek οἰκονομία (oikonomia, "management of a household, administration") from οἶκος (oikos, "house") + νόμος (nomos, "custom" or "law"), hence "rules of the house(hold)".Current economic models developed out of the broader field of political economy in the late 19th century, owing to a desire to use an empirical approach more akin to the physical sciences.
A definition that captures much of modern economics is that of Lionel Robbins in a 1932 essay: "the science which studies human behaviour as a relationship between ends and scarce means which have alternative uses." Scarcity means that available resources are insufficient to satisfy all wants and needs. Absent scarcity and alternative uses of available resources, there is no economic problem. The subject thus defined involves the study of choices as they are affected by incentives and resources.Economics aims to explain how economies work and how economic agents interact. Economic analysis is applied throughout society, in business, finance and government, but also in crime, education, the family, health, law, politics, religion, social institutions, war, and science. The expanding domain of economics in the social sciences has been described as economic imperialismCommon distinctions are drawn between various dimensions of economics: between positive economics (describing "what is") and normative economics (advocating "what ought to be") or between economic theory and applied economics or between mainstream economics (more "orthodox" dealing with the "rationality-individualism-equilibrium nexus") and heterodox economics (more "radical" dealing with the "institutions-history-social structure nexus"). However the primary textbook distinction is between microeconomics ("small"economics), which examines the economic behavior of agents (including individuals and firms) and macroeconomics ("big" economics), addressing issues of unemployment, inflation, monetary and fiscal policy for an entire economy.
Text 8
There are many different kinds of economies around the world, but they all fall into two basic categories. One category is the command economy which is also called central planning. It has strong government control. The other type is the free market economy which is also called capitalism. In this type of economy, there is very little government control. Currently, all real economies combine parts of capitalism with those of central planning. Each country around the world differs from one another in the amount they use the two systems. For example, the United States and Canada have economic systems that use very little government control so they are usually described as capitalistic.
Command
economies have strong government control. So if you wanted to start
your own business, you would have to get permission from the
government. In a command economy, the government owns most of the
industries and companies. One type of command economy is communism.
True communism is a type of economic system that doesn't allow
ownership of private property. Most of the command economies that
existed in the world had strong central governments. These
governments dictated how much was made and what was made by industry.
The communists believed that life is a class struggle between workers
and the owners of a industry or factory. I
n
a communistic economy, goods were distributed on an as-needed-basis.
In the command economy, the government makes the decisions as to what
goods to supply to the people. The Soviet Union was an example of a
communistic command economy. Many people think China is still a
communist country. But they, and other countries like them,
have given control over some of their economic activities back to the
people. The other basic type of economy is the free market or
capitalistic economy. It is an economy that has very little
government control. So if you wanted to start your own business, you
would not have to get permission from the government. In a free
market economy, the consumer decides what they want to buy. A
consumer is a customer. The law of supply and demand is what drives
the free market economy. Supply and demand is what sets the prices of
goods and services in the free market economy. As supply goes up the
prices go down. When the demand goes up the prices go up. Due to low
government control, people are free to spend their money the way they
want to. People can take the risk of starting their own business and
losing money or starting their own business and making lots of money.
People like James Ford Bell and Will Kellogg took risks in starting
their own breakfast cereal businesses. Some examples of countries
with a free market economy are The United States of America, Germany,
and England. In the world today free market economies have
social programs such as the Social Security System in The United
States. Command economies like China are introducing free market
economies into their economy. With the information age upon us, only
time will tell where the world economies are headed
Text 9
Three types of economic systems exist, each with their own drawbacks and benefits; the Market Economy, the Planned Economy and the Mixed Economy. An economic system is loosely defined as country’s plan for its services, goods produced, and the exact way in which its economic plan is carried out. In general, there are three major types of economic systems prevailing around the world. Market Economy
In a market economy, national and state governments play a minor role. Instead, consumers and their buying decisions drive the economy. In this type of economic system, the assumptions of the market play a major role in deciding the right path for a country’s economic development. Market economies aim to reduce or eliminate entirely subsidies for a particular industry, the pre-determination of prices for different commodities, and the amount of regulation controlling different industrial sectors. The absence of central planning is one of the major features of this economic system. Market decisions are mainly dominated by supply and demand. The role of the government in a market economy is to simply make sure that the market is stable enough to carry out its economic activities properly.
Planned Economy
A planned economy is also sometimes called a command economy. The most important aspect of this type of economy is that all major decisions related to the production, distribution, commodity and service prices, are all made by the government. The planned economy is government directed, and market forces have very little say in such an economy. This type of economy lacks the kind of flexibility that is present a market economy, and because of this, the planned economy reacts slower to changes in consumer needs and fluctuating patterns of supply and demand. On the other hand, a planned economy aims at using all available resources for developing production instead of allotting the resources for advertising or marketing. Mixed Economy
A mixed economy combines elements of both the planned and the market economies in one cohesive system. This means that certain features from both market and planned economic systems are taken to form this type of economy. This system prevails in many countries where neither the government nor the business entities control the economic activities of that country - both sectors play an important role in the economic decision-making of the country. In a mixed economy there is flexibility in some areas and government control in others. Mixed economies include both capitalist and socialist economic policies and often arise in societies that seek to balance a wide range of political and economic views.
Text 10
There are few economists who have become both so reviled, and admired as Marx. Indeed some would even question whether Marx deserves to be called an economist; others would prefer terms like 'bungling and failed revolutionary'. However, there are certainly few economists who read so widely and wrote so much as Marx. Whether you love or loathe Marx, we cannot deny his writings had profound influence on the twentieth century.
Marx believed society was an evolving struggle. He believed Capitalism was an evolving structure. However, unlike Adam Smith, Marx did not believe this evolution was always smooth, nor did he believe it evolved for the best. In fact Marx, predicted the collapse of Capitalism. Marx placed great value on economic forces for explaining social structures. He argued that institutions such as church, education and the state evolved to support the capitalist class. But, Marx, was revolutionary in placing so much emphasis on the power of economic forces to influence society.
Marx examined society and argued that the wealth of capitalists was based on paying labour less than their true labour value (underpaid labour). This difference between the true labour value and the wages paid led to the accumulation of money capital. Marx argued that Capitalism was inherently unstable because:
Workers were abused and disenfranchised. As capitalism developed, Marx predicted, workers would become increasingly alienated and seek to overthrow the capitalist class.
Capitalists could make bad decisions about what to produce
Growth was not guaranteed but could become volatile leading to periods of economic slump. Marxists certainly point to the Great Depression of a vindication of how capitalism can fail.
Text 11
The proletariat mostly became better off. Economic growth did enable Capitalists to make more profit, but, ultimately, workers benefited from real wage rises. In the nineteenth and twentieth century, labour was often exploited with poor conditions and low wages. But, workers have become better off. After all, it is in the interests of Capitalists to have a workforce who can afford to buy their goods. The elusive 'dictatorship of the Proletariat' in practice tended to be more about 'dictatorship' and less about the proletariat. In some ways Marx was a democrat. He was criticising a system which did not extend the vote to large sways of the working class; he wanted these disenfranchised workers to be enfranchised. But, in practise, Marxism is indelibly linked to the totalitarian state of the Soviet Union.
I can imagine some readers (especially in America) thinking why even mention Marx? Surely, he was hopelessly flawed and the inspiration behind the despotic Stalinist regime? It is worth mentioning what John Maynard Keynes says on Marxism (1931)
"How can I accept the [Communist] doctrine, which sets up as its bible, above and beyond criticism, an obsolete textbook which I know not only to be scientifically erroneous but without interest or application to the modern world? How can I adopt a creed which, preferring the mud to the fish, exalts the boorish proletariat above the bourgeoisie and the intelligentsia, who with all their faults, are the quality of life and surely carry the seeds of all human achievement? Even if we need a religion, how can we find it in the turbid rubbish of the red bookshop? It is hard for an educated, decent, intelligent son of Western Europe to find his ideals here, unless he has first suffered some strange and horrid process of conversion which has changed all his values."
Text 12
On average, a Ukrainian professional will hold 8-14 jobs during his or her lifetime, so learning to work with new colleagues is a reality in every workplace. Nonetheless, getting settled at a new job can be stressful. There are ways of coping with the stresses of a new job, though:
Know your job description. In order to work efficiently and effectively, you should know what your duties are; this will help you to feel confident about what you are doing. Talk to your new colleagues. Ask them about office priorities, and ask questions whenever necessary to clarify things you don’t understand. Whatever you do, don’t behave like a know-it-all.
Communicate with your new colleagues. First impressions are important. On your first day of work at a new job, make a point of greeting everyone in the room, and don’t be afraid to make eye contact while doing so. During the first weeks in a new work environment your emotional comfort is less dependent on your professional achievements than on your ability to communicate with your colleagues in a friendly and professional manner. Good communication will also help you to work as a team in the future.
Don’t gossip. There are always those long-time employees who cling to newcomers in hopes of sharing office rumors and gossip. Avoid office gossip as a rule.
Don’t be TOO nice. Newcomers often try to do whatever they can to be accepted: they smile at everybody, make coffee for the whole department, or perform jobs that are not expected of them. Don’t do it. You should understand that you are an asset to the organization that hired you. You were chosen from among many applicants for your position and that means that you are a true professional and the best person for this job. You have not entered into a hostile camp, but into a well-set team which surely has its own rules and regulations – a team that also needs you.
Know when to hold your tongue. Avoid arguments with your boss or colleagues in the first few weeks at a new job. Even if you are certain that you are correct, arguing will not resolve the problem.
Take heed of the dress code. You should pay attention to the way people around you are dressed; your clothes should correspond to your new office environment.
Interview your boss. After about a month at a new job, set up a meeting with your boss to see what he or she thinks about how you are doing.
Список використаної літератури:
1. Jon Naunton. Head for business. Intermediate. – Oxford, 2009
2. Simon Sweeney. Test your business English. - Penguin Books, 1996
3. Dictionary of contemporary English. - Longman, 2003
4. Завдання для студентів 1-3 курсів інженерно-економічного факультету, які вивчають маркетинг. (Упорядники Н.В.Ємець, О.М.Горлатова).- Киів, КНУТД, 2008
5. Кузякіна М.Л., Ємець Н.В.. Навчально-методичний посібник для самостійної роботи студентів 1-2 курсів інженерно-економічного факультету. – Київ, КНУТД, 2009
6. Науменко Л.П.. Business English Course. - Киев, «Издательство А.С.К.»
7. Прибатень Ю.А. та ін. - English for economists. – Kyiv, KNT 2008.