Orest Subtelny

Orest Subtelny (b. 1943 in Kraków) - is a Canadian historian of Ukrainian descent. He received his Ph.D. from Harvard University in 1973. Since 1982 he is a professor at the Department of History and Political Science, York University, Toronto, Canada.

Subtelny's major work is the general textbook Ukraine: A History (1988), a work of Ukrainian historiography. During the Gorbachev reforms, the book was quickly translated into both Ukrainian and Russian and affected the growth of Ukrainian historical and national consciousness during the initial years of Ukrainian independence.

Under the influence of his mentors, the orientalist Omeljan Pritsak and the Ivan Mazepa specialist Oleksander Ohloblyn, Subtelny's earlier work dealt with the Cossack era, especially the revolt of Hetman Ivan Mazepa against Tsar Peter the Great. In this work, he sought to avoid the extremes of labeling Mazepa either an evil traitor to Russia or a heroic defender of Ukrainian national independence and portrayed him as a typical partisan of aristocratic local autonomy before the encroaching absolute monarchies of his time.

In his history of Ukraine, Subtelny took a more traditional approach, like his predecessors Mykhailo Hrushevsky, Dmytro Doroshenko, and Ivan Krypiakevych, writing a national history, primarily the history of the Ukrainian people. However, unlike these predecessors who wished to stress aspirations to statehood, Subtelny stressed "statelessness." In his view, modernization of the country was largely sponsored by outside powers and thus not exactly favourable to the rise of a Ukrainian national consciousness.

Selected books and publications

• The Mazepists: Ukrainian Separatism in the Early Eighteenth Century (1981).

• The Domination of Eastern Europe, Foreign Absolutism and Native Nobilities (1986)

• Ukraine: A History (1988)

• Ukrainians in North America (1991)

• "Cossacks", in The World Book Encyclopedia (1997)

• "Ukraine", in Encarta Encyclopedia (1997)

• "Ukraine: The Imperial Heritage", Briefing Papers of the Canadian Bureau of International Studies (1996)

Supplementary texts Copper Age

The Chalcolithic period or Copper Age period [also known as the Eneolithic (Æneolithic)], is a phase in the development of human culture in which the use of early metal tools appeared alongside the use of stone tools.

The literature of European archaeology generally avoids the use of 'chalcolithic' (they prefer the term 'Copper Age'), while Middle-Eastern archaeologists regularly use it. The Copper Age began much earlier in the Middle East, while the transition from the European Copper Age to its own full-fledged Bronze Age is far more rapid.

The period is a transitional one outside of the traditional three-age system, and occurs between the Neolithic and Bronze Age. It appears that copper was not widely exploited at first and that efforts in alloying it with tin and other metals began quite soon, making distinguishing the distinct Chalcolithic cultures and periods difficult.

Because of this it is usually only applied by archaeologists in some parts of the world, mainly south-east Europe and Western and Central Asia where it appears around the 4th millennium BC. Less commonly, it is also applied to American civilizations which already used copper and copper alloys at the time of European conquest. The Old Copper Complex, located in present day Michigan and Wisconsin utilized copper for tools, weapons and other implements. Artefacts from these sites have been dated from 4000 to 1000 BC, making them some of the oldest sites in the world.

Ceramic similarities between the Indus Civilization, southern Turkmenistan and northern Iran during 4300–3200 BC of the Chalcolithic period (Copper Age) suggest considerable mobility and trade.

Ötzi the Iceman, found in the Ötztaler Alps and whose remains have been dated to about 3300 BC, carried a copper axe and flint knife. He appears to have been in a region of Europe which was in transition to this period.

Knowledge of the use of copper was far wider spread than the metal itself. The European Battle Axe culture used stone axes modelled on copper axes, with imitation "mold marks" carved in the stone.

The European Beaker people are often considered Chalcolithic as were the cultures which first adopted urbanization in south west Asia. Many megaliths in Europe were erected during this period and it has been suggested that Proto-Indo-European linguistic unity dates to around the same time.

Parpola, Asko (2005), "Study of the ancient script", Transactions of the 50th International Conference of Eastern Studies