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Modal verbs can; could to be able to

Uses

Present/Future

Past

1) ability; capability

I can run fast.

I can help you.

I am able to help you.

I will be able to help you.

I could run fast when I was a child, but now I can’t.

I was able to help you.

2) informal permission

You can use my car tomorrow.

3) polite request

Can I borrow your pen? Could I borrow your pen? Could you help me?

4) impossibility (negative only)

That can’t be true!

That couldn’t be true!

That can’t have been true!

That couldn’t have been true!

5) suggestion

— I need help in math. You could talk to your teacher.

You could have talked to your teacher.

6) less than 50% certainty

— Where is John?

He could be at home.

He could have been at home.

7) doubt; astonishment (interrogative)

Can she know Japanese?

Can he have done it?

May; might

Uses

Present/Future

Past

1) polite request

May I borrow your pen?

Might I borrow your pen?

2) formal permission

You may leave the room.

3) less than 50% certainty

—Where is John?

He may be at the library.

He might be at the library

He may have been at the library.

He might have been at the library.

Must; be to; have to; have got to

Uses

Present/Future

Past

1) duty; obligation; strong necessity

I must go to class today.

I have to go to class today.

I have got to go to class today.

I had to go to class yesterday.

2) lack of necessity (negative)

I don’t have to go to class today.

I didn’t have to go to class yesterday.

3) prohibition (negative)

You must not open that door.

4) 90% certainty

Mary isn’t in class. She must be sick. (present only)

You must have been sick yesterday.

5) plan; agreement

We are to meet at nine.

We were to meet at nine.

6) order instruction

You must go here at once.

You are to go there at once.

7) destiny (past only)

He was never o see his wife again.

Should; ought to

Uses

Present/Future

Past

1) advisability; desirability

I should study tonight.

I ought to study tonight.

I should have studied last night.

I ought to have studied last night.

2) 90% certainty

She should do well on the test.

She ought to do well on the test. (future only)

She should have done well on the test.

She ought to have done well on the test.

SHALL

Uses

Present/Future

Past

1) polite question to make a suggestion

Shall I open the window?

2) future with “I” or “we” as subject

I shall arrive at nine. (will = more common)

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