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Plant-based Foods and their Implications in Brain Health
cortex [16]. Sensations from the hands and lips occupy a comparatively large portion of the cortex,
whereas those from less sensitive portions of the body occupy considerably smaller sections. Touch
and pain perception are localized sensations, with certain regions of the body being more sensitive
than others [17].
The number and location of receptors play a major role in explaining these divergent reactions.
The cornea, for instance, is hundreds of times more responsive to painful sensations than the bottoms
[18]. The reaction to noxious (painful) thermal, mechanical, or chemical stimulus is mediated by
chemicals produced by distinct subsets of nociceptor cells. Capsaicin, garlic, and wasabi are just
a few examples of plant- based compounds that may cause pain, and they all react to the same
molecules in the body [15,19]. Itch is triggered in certain people when certain nociceptors in the
skin detect a chemical signal. One such nociceptor is histamine, which is secreted in reactions to
variety of chemicals are released at the injury site. Increased pain perception is possible because
prostaglandins make pain receptors more sensitive to tissue injury [20]. Allodynia is a clinical
condition where seemingly harmless stimuli, such as touching burnt skin, may cause severe pain.
Prostaglandins play a role in this phenomenon [21]. Changes in the neural system brought on by
repeated trauma may increase and extend the ‘pain’ signal. The end outcome is heightened sen-
sitivity to pain, such that even benign stimuli might cause severe reactions. Many people do not
realize that chronic pain is a disorder of the neural system in and of itself rather than just a symptom
of another underlying illness [22].
-
resulting in a pain sensation that is both immediate and distinct. Communication along unmyelinated
pain that is hard to place. The thalamus perceives signals from the spinal cord and passes them on to
the parts of the brain responsible for transforming those signals into perceptual awareness. The skin
is a sensory organ that can express a wide range of experiences, from the numbing cold of a breeze
to the soothing touch of another’s hand on yours to the grating itch of a woollen scarf. Information
of various sorts activates distinct receptors, which transduce the stimulation of the skin into elec-
trical nerve impulses. Most painful sensations are the result of nociceptors being activated, which
are receptors that only respond to stimuli that might cause permanent damage to nearby tissues.
Both chemoreceptors and mechanoreceptors have offshoots that function as nociceptors. A group of
receptors called chemo- sensitive nociceptors are activated when cells release chemicals in response
mechanical stimulation that is strong enough to cause tissue injury [23].
in a loving caregiver. Human orphan research has shown us that touch is also essential for human
growth. Babies in Romanian orphanages who were fed properly but not provided any other kind
of care had cognitive and neurodevelopmental delays. A soothing touch from a mother is known to
lower stress chemicals like cortisol, which may explain why holding a screaming infant might help
them relax. Intense stress may cause cell death in the developing brain. As a result, it seems that
reducing stress via physical contact, such as hugs and caresses, is crucial not only for the health of
children but also for the maturation of the brain in infants [24].
Pain signals are sent from the cerebral cortex to the periaqueductal grey matter, where they acti-
vate pathways that modify pain [17]. Endorphins are naturally occurring opioids that have analgesic
effects similar to morphine [25]. When you are under intense emotional stress, your body releases
adrenaline, which has a dual role as both a painkiller and a stress reliever. By interfering with pain
signals as they travel to the spinal cord and brainstem, their release helps regulate and relieve pain.
We all have these neural pathways, but how effectively they function and how sensitive they are
5
Neurobiology: An Overview
determine how much pain we experience. It is the reason why some individuals have persistent pain
that standard medical care cannot alleviate. There are many different kinds of opioid receptors in the
CNS, and endorphins activate all of them. Opioid medications may be sent to the spinal cord before,
during, and after surgery to alleviate pain. To alleviate pain without resorting to long- term opioid
usage, researchers are exploring the use of electrical stimulation of the spinal cord [4].
Neither pain nor itching are processed by a single region of the brain. Our perception of pain is
cognitive behavioural therapy, and regulated cannabis usage are just a few of the effective therapies
that aim to address the emotional side of the problem. Chronic pain patients continue to experi-
ence pain, although it does not ‘hurt’ as much as it once did. Brain imaging reveals that cannabis
inhibits pain processing in a select few regions, primarily in the limbic system. It is still unclear to
researchers exactly how these treatments function [22].
1.4 MEMORY AND LEARNING
We utilize both learning and memory to keep knowledge about our life experiences, which is essen-
tial for our survival [26]. We would not be able to develop fundamental motor or communication
abilities, the capacity for complicated reasoning, or group relations without learning and memory.
Pioneers in neuroscience such as Ramón y Cajal, Hebb, and Marr introduced the concept that
memory is coded in the patterns of synaptic connections between neurons [27].
The human brain is the hub of learning, as we have known from the beginning of time. About
28]. Since
higher- order cognitive processes like memory and reasoning take place in the cerebrum, it is this
region of the brain that is most engaged in learning. Vision, listening, speaking, touching, short- term
memory, long- term memory, language skills, and reasoning abilities are all specialized functions of
the cerebrum that are essential for learning [29].
Short- term memory is a brittle area of the brain that serves as a receiver for the abundance of sen-
-
in short- term memory, the brain’s neuronal connections transport these memories to the structural
core, where they are compared to pre- existing memories and retained in long- term memory. In
reality, some deterioration is visible as information rushes across billions of neurons’ axons, which
convey messages to the following cell via synapses. Because of this, many of our thoughts are
29].
Neuroscientists think that the strengthening and weakening of connections between brain cells
are the primary factors in how learning and memory are formed. Recently, it was demonstrated
by the Centre for the Neurobiology of Learning and Memory researchers at the University of
California, Irvine. Researchers discovered that when two neurons connect often, they develop a link
that makes communication between them easier and more precise. This results in easier memory
two neurons did not connect very regularly, which resulted in either a false memory or nothing at all
[30]. Together with the use of positron emission tomography (PET scan) and functional magnetic
resonance imaging (MRI), cognitive scientists and neuroscientists have lately made advancements
in their understanding of memory processes [31]. The hippocampal formation is made up of the
hippocampus, a curving seahorse- shaped organ located underneath the temporal lobes. It aids in
learning, memorization, orientation, and spatial awareness [31].
1.4.1 Types of Memory
Neuroscientists and psychologists have divided memory systems into two major categories.
Declarative memory is most likely the most well- known memory system. It contains memories
6
Plant-based Foods and their Implications in Brain Health
of facts and things that actually happened, and it has a conscious component [32], for example, a
fact like ‘Islamabad is the capital of Pakistan’ or an event like ‘I visited Islamabad before’. Implicit
memory, also known as non- declarative memory, refers to the categories of memory systems that
‘knows what’; the memory that is not declarative ‘knows how’. Can we improve our memory? Yes,
some of the strategies have proved useful for improving our memory.
1. Developing mnemonic devices to remember new information. For instance, creating a pattern
or memory for each name in a room might help you recall them all.
2. Solving brain riddles and problems.
3. Forming solid memory associations to assist with memory. Meditation or discussion of recent
events may help to strengthen these bonds.
4.
1.5 ARTIFICIAL BRAIN AND NEURAL NETWORKS
Neurons are specialized cells that can transmit nerve impulses and respond to stimuli. Dendrites,
which are branching projections on neurons, assist in guiding the electrical stimulation that synapses,
or connections between brain cells, provide to neighbouring neurons. Previously believed to be
33].
1.5.1 neural networkS
1.5.1.1 Biological Neural Networks
The cortex, brainstem, cerebellum, and other anatomical divisions of the human brain may all be
separated anatomically. According to the roles they play and the inherent design of the neural network’s
architecture, it may be further split into a number of sections and regions [34]. Electrical current can go
via the gap junctions that join the postsynaptic and presynaptic cell membranes in an electrical synapse.
1.5.1.2 Artificial Neural Networks
They have been developed to mimic the operations of the brain’s neuronal network and architec-
ture. By employing training with examples and algorithms to change the weights of linked neurons,
learning is accomplished. Modelling heavily utilizes this process.
1.5.1.3 General Architecture of Artificial Neural Network
how to carry out a given task. The most widely used technique for training neural networks is
backpropagation.
1.5.2 artifiCial intelligenCe (ai)
The study of intelligent behaviour through simulation, modelling, and computational methods is the
33]. Expert systems used
to identify and resolve engine issues are one example of how AI has been employed to do intelli-
gent tasks.
1.6 NEURODEGENERATIVE DISEASES
particularly vulnerable to metabolic or toxic diseases, as opposed to the selective, static neuronal
7
Neurobiology: An Overview
loss brought on by such conditions [35]. Neurodegenerative diseases are rare and common genetic
conditions that affect the CNS. These diseases cause certain groups of neurons and the connections
between them to lose function over time [36].
Despite receiving enough training, having an intelligent mind, and having intact sensory abil-
37].
The point of reading is to understand, which requires both the ability to decode and the ability to
understand spoken language [38]. Decoding issues are what characterize dyslexia, but hearing com-
prehension is often more intact. Despite the fact that those with very low decoding skills (such as
young children or those with severe dyslexia) have poor reading comprehension, others with mod-
erate decoding issues can nonetheless sustain acceptable reading comprehension with intact spoken
language skills [39].
Reading is a linguistic talent, so it makes sense that it would activate brain regions involved in
processing vocal language and certain extra regions involved in processing [40] visual objects and
creating visual- linguistic maps (see Figure 1.2). According to functional imaging studies, people
with dyslexia have aberrant activations of a widespread left hemisphere language network [41,42].
The left inferior frontal gyrus frequently shows abnormal activity. Studies on structural imaging
have shown that this same network has less grey matter. According to new family risk research [43],
teaching [44].
Repeated linkage studies that used molecular techniques found that dyslexia is linked to nine risk
loci (DYX1 – DYX9, where DYX stands for dyslexia and the number shows the order of discovery)
[45,46
a low- reading group using DNA pooling and more than 100,000 single- nucleotide polymorphisms.
-
tially explained the variance.
FIGURE 1.2 White matter tracts and possible reading- related grey matter areas are shown schematically as
dark grey ovals and colourful lines, respectively.
8
Plant-based Foods and their Implications in Brain Health
The prenatal processes of rat neural development have been found to be altered by DYX1C1,
DCDC2, KIAA0319, and ROBO1, particularly neurotransmission and the formation of connections
when neurons reach their target location (for instance, neurite– axon and dendrite– outgrowth and
guidance). Fundamentally, a group or network of alleles that communicate with one another through
molecular signalling controls these two prominent brain development mechanisms.
Table 1.1 describes the genes which are associated with dyslexia, and before it, these genes were
related to speech impairment/ disorder.
Alzheimer’s [47] and Parkinson’s disease [40,43] are well- researched, while Ataxia and
dementia are hotspot diseases. Table 1.2 lists the mode of action and the genes involved in these
neurodegenerative diseases.
1.7 DRUGS FOR BRAIN DISORDERS
The effects of addiction on the brain are far- reaching. Stimulants, nicotine, opiates, alcohol, and
sedatives all have chemical components that are absorbed into the brain and circulation upon usage.
An individual’s willpower and self- control might weaken once a drug has entered the brain, leading
to reckless behaviour or an insatiable need for a toxic substance [52].
There are a variety of variables, including drug kind and quantity, frequency of use, and addiction
state of exhilaration in its users. Cocaine’s psychoactive properties produce this by stimulating the
reward and motivation centres of the brain [53
TABLE 1.2
Summary of neurodegenerative diseases and their mechanism of action in the brain
Disease Mode of Action Gene Reference
Parkinson Disease Degeneration of dopaminergic neurons in the nigra
pars compacta of the mesencephalon.
SNCA, LRRK2, VPS35,
PINK1
[48]
Alzheimer’s Disorder It relates to the loss of memory. APP, PSEN1, PSEN2 [49]
Dementia High penetrance of autosomal dominant genes is
observed.
MAPT, C9ORF72, GRN, [50]
Ataxia It affects coordination and speech. ATXN1/ CAG, CACNA1A/ CAG [51]
TABLE 1.1
Candidate genes for dyslexia
Loci Position Genes
DYX1 15q21.1 DYXC1
DYX2 6p22.2
6p22
KIAA0319
DCDC2
DYX3 2p15- 16 MRPL19, C20RF3
DYX5 3p12- q13 ROBO1
DYX6 18p11.2 MC5R, DYM, NEDD4L
SPCH1 7q31.1 FOXP2
SLI4 7q35- 36 CNTNAP2
SLI1 16q23- 24 CMIP, ATP2C2
9
Neurobiology: An Overview
rush of dopamine, the neurotransmitter responsible for that happy feeling. This sensation may be
quite powerful, leading to a strong urge to keep using it. Delta- 9- tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), the
psychoactive ingredient in marijuana, attaches to cannabinoid receptors in the brain and induces
a calming and relaxing state. High cannabis receptor density areas of the brain are hit particu-
larly hard.
According to the National Institute on Substance Abuse (NIDA), in the United States, marijuana
is the abused drug that is most often used. Its usage is highest among teenagers and young adults
[54]. The hippocampus is responsible for short- term memory; therefore, marijuana usage may
involuntary muscle movements and aid with coordination, are also affected. Common short- term
symptoms of marijuana consumption include impairment in motor abilities, emotional changes,
solving issues [55].
According to the National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA), teens who start using marijuana
and do not stop even after they become adults may experience permanent IQ declines. Only around
30% of those who use marijuana do not get addicted; starting before age 18 raises that number by
a factor of 4 to 7. There is some evidence that marijuana usage might hasten the loss of neurons in
the hippocampus that occurs with ageing, which can exacerbate memory loss. Long- term marijuana
between cannabis usage and the development of psychosis and mental diseases like schizophrenia
is also documented by NIDA. Marijuana usage has also been linked to irregular heartbeat and other
cardiac disturbances.
Opioid medicines are CNS depressants and also interfere with the body’s normal synthesis of
norepinephrine [56]. Opioids dull the sense of pain, make you sleepy, lower your temperature,
and slow your cardiovascular, respiratory, and metabolic systems. Abuse of opioids almost always
leads to overdose, which often results in life- threatening respiratory depression [57]. The Centers
for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) estimates that 91 people in the United States pass away
from an opioid overdose each day, and opioids were implicated in 60% of all overdose fatalities in
2015 [58]. According to NIDA’s published research, long- term, chronic heroin use may also cause
the degradation of portions of the white matter in the brain, which may have a detrimental effect on
stress response, emotion regulation, and decision- making. Long- term risks of persistent opioid drug
usage include lung problems and infections of the heart’s lining [59].
Stimulant medications are highly addictive because of their effects on dopamine and the limbic
reward system. The DEA advises that chronic cocaine use may lead to psychosis and adversely
affect CNS functioning. Regular users of meth may experience hallucinations, anxiety, and dis-
orientation due to the same effects on the brain and CNS. Methamphetamine abuse may lead to
impairments in learning and memory, motor coordination, and emotional control.
If a person with a heroin addiction suddenly quits taking the drug, they may suffer severe with-
drawal symptoms such as cravings, sadness, anxiety, and excessive perspiration. Extensive use of
60]. Though a com-
plete addiction may not have set in yet, tolerance and dependence may be present. In the long run,
the brain becomes used to the chemical overload and the substance’s mental consequences. The
brain then lowers its synthesis of neurotransmitters, chemical messengers in the brain. Expert care
for withdrawal symptoms is recommended since it lowers the likelihood of recurrence and other
adverse health outcomes, such as stroke and heart attack.
When a person with an addiction joins a treatment centre, they may get medication and access
cutting- edge therapies to help them overcome their problem. After substance abuse treatment, bio-
feedback is often used to restore balance to the brain. A trained observer can keep tabs on how the
brain is doing. The ability to enhance brain function, so mitigating the consequences of addiction
and unhealthful urges, is within their reach.
10
Plant-based Foods and their Implications in Brain Health
Electroencephalograms (EEGs) are used in biofeedback. Electroencephalograms (EEGs) are pri-
marily used to aid those who have experienced severe brain injuries, but they may also help people
with obsessive- compulsive disorder and other brain illnesses. By providing information about
one’s own body, biofeedback helps people learn to control their own instinctive responses to stress.
Meditation, guided visualization, and muscular relaxation are all techniques that may be used in this
kind of treatment.
Improved involuntary functions, including heart rate, blood pressure, and muscular contraction,
may be achieved by the use of biofeedback in conjunction with cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT)
or dialectical behavioural therapy (DBT). There is a kind of biofeedback known as EEQ treatment
that focuses on the NS, called neurofeedback. The treatment is a kind of cognitive training. This
treatment for addiction involves keeping tabs on mental processes. Reducing tension and anxiety,
treatments, the patient receives a reward that encourages the brain to reestablish its previous level
of functioning.
1.8 CONCLUSION
The memory and learning process can be enhanced in different ways, like through meditation or
Machine learning helps in the early diagnosis, prognosis, and development of new therapies for
neurodegenerative diseases. To fully integrate machine learning into diagnostic and prognostic
neurology practice as well as the development of future medicines, sizable collections of curated
datasets and thorough assessments of machine learning methodologies will be required.
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DOI: 10.1201/9781003300502-2
2
Plants as Neuroprotective
Agents
Role of Plant- Based Natural
Products as Potential Brain
Health Boosters
Vanshika Sharma, Yutika Nath, and Ranjan Dutta Kalita
2.1 INTRODUCTION
-
cess that is primarily involved in causing both neuropathological conditions and brain ageing. It is
known as the brain pathology in the form of cerebrovascular and neurodegenerative disease, which
is a leading cause of death globally, with an incidence of about 2/ 1000 and an 8% total death rate
[1]. Several studies have proved that alteration in the physicochemical properties of proteins leads
to the accumulation of these proteins in the human brain, which ultimately leads to neuronal degen-
eration [2]. Neuropsychiatric and neurological disorders like schizophrenia, depression, anxiety,
Alzheimer’s disease (AD), Parkinson’s disease (PD), Huntington’s disease (HD), amyotrophic lat-
eral sclerosis (ALS), cerebrovascular impairment, seizure disorders, and head injuries are the key
health issues caused due to the neural disorders. Other systemic disorders triggered as a result of
neural dysfunction are cardiovascular, respiratory, renal, gastrointestinal, and many others in the
21st century [3].
Several pharmaceutical compounds are available in the market, known for their neuroprotective
properties. Drugs that are being used to improve neurofunction generally work by altering the
balance of chemicals called neurotransmitters in the brain. This is mainly done by selective
metabolic rate in chronically impaired human brain function. It has been reported that several
medicines that are derived from medicinal plants have exhibited promising memory- enhancing
properties due to the presence of bioactive phytochemical constituents. For instance, in the case
of dementia, it is mainly caused by decreased cholinergic activity in the brain. Therefore, an alter-
native treatment using cholinergic drugs of plant origin is being used. For instance, muscarinic
agonists (e.g., arecoline, pilocarpine etc.), nicotinic agonists (e.g., nicotine), and cholinesterase
inhibitors (e.g., huperzine) are among the few remedies that can be used for improving memory.
Other plant- derived drugs used in dementia are stimulants or nootropics (e.g., piracetam, amphet-
amine), putative cerebral vasodilators (e.g., ergot alkaloids, and papavarine), calcium channel
blockers (e.g., nimodipine) [1].