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Plant-based Foods and their Implications in Brain Health
16.8.2 anti- iSChaemiC and anti- oxidative effeCtS of melatonin
The most prevalent type of stroke is ischaemic stroke, which happens as a result of thrombotic
and embolic clots, which then obstruct the blood supply to the brain from that particular cerebellar
artery [28]. Ischaemic stroke not only causes neuronal necrosis but also initiates a series of patho-
47]. To treat
this damage, MT has been vastly taken into consideration because of the well- known anti- oxidative
effects of this molecule. As MT is a potential free radicals scavenger, its prophylactic and post-
disease effects for ischaemic stroke are hotspots of discussion [47]. MT has the capacity to forge
various free radicals such as O
2
radicals, singlet oxygen (O
12
), hydroxyl (OH) radicals, peroxyl
radicals, hydrogen peroxide (H
2
O
2
), nitric oxide (NO), and peroxynitrite (ONOO_ ) in physiological
conditions [48
mation, oxidative stress, and neuronal death and alleviates brain oedema [48]. Post- stroke neuro-
such as N
1
- acetyl- N
2
- formyl- 5- methoxykynuramine (AFMK) and N1- acetyl- 5- methoxykynuramine
(AMK), are widely studied and considered as most potent antioxidants, playing an important pro-
tective role in ischaemic injury. MT not only scavenges the free radicals but also improves motor
behavioural outcomes [28].
16.8.3 anti- oxidative effeCtS of melatonin in alzheimer’S diSeaSe
Alzheimer’s is a neurodegenerative disorder caused by the deposition of a toxic protein, b- amyloid,
hurdles for synaptic functioning leading to decreased cognitive performance. The cascade arises
from disrupted b- amyloid accumulation in the brain resulting in neuronal loss to increase oxida-
tive stress. AD is an age- dependent problem [48]. So, the effect of oxidative stress is more severe
-
erties of MT make it a ray of hope for AD patients [25]. Although the exact cause of AD has not
FIGURE 16.3
325
Melatonin and the Brain
been elucidated yet, it has been observed that AD is a multifactorial disease. These factors include
gender, nutrition, age, and genetics. The studies show the enhanced production of presenilins 1 and
2, apolipoprotein E (ApoE), and amyloid precursor proteins (APP) in AD patients as compared to
normal people. MT inhibits the synthesis and activation of APP and b- amyloid along with the pro-
25].
16.9 ANTI- DEPRESSANT- LIKE ACTION OF MELATONIN
circadian rhythms of Mongolian Gerbils were subjected to blue light for long periods of time
[48]. This action lessens corticosterone levels, lowers corticotrophin- releasing hormone (CRH)
in the hypothalamus, and induces the protein melanopsin to be dopamine- depleted in those living
creatures. MT has been shown in research to have therapeutic value against insomnia, sleep
problems, and anxiety. Neurogenesis was stimulated by administrating a low dose of ketamine and
MT around each other. This also overturns neuronal muscle wastage, which enhances symptoms
of depression [49].
MT, an intrinsic hormone, is essential for circadian, immune regulation, emotion control, synapse
50]. Depression caused by MT secretion abnormalities. To
cure this anxiety, an external supply of MT is administered orally [49][50][51]. MT supplements
abnormalities in the hippocampus (Figures 16.3 and 16.4).
FIGURE 16.4 Features of melatonin presenting anti- depressant activates in the human body.
*TrkB: tropomyosin receptor kinase B; *AKT: protein kinase B, *Nrf2: NF- E2- related factor 2,
*FOXO3a: forkhead box transcription factor 3a, *SOD: superoxide dismutase, *HO- 1: haem oxygenase-
1, *CAT: catalase, *ROS: reactive oxygen species, *LPO: lipid peroxide; *MDA: malondialdehyde, *NT-
3: neurotrophin- 3, and *NGF: nerve growth factor.
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Plant-based Foods and their Implications in Brain Health
16.10 CONCLUSION
To successfully survive and live harmoniously in the environment by maintaining a proper balance
with outer and inner environmental conditions, MT plays an important role. MT not only helps in
homeostasis of the body but also synchronizes the central and peripheral nervous system functioning.
Studies prove that MT might be the most potent biomarker for human circadian rhythms and all
-
Alzheimer's, Parkinson's, depression, oxidative stress and cancer. Thus, melatonin’s role as a poten-
tial therapeutic agent against many other disorders must be researched in the future.
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328
DOI: 10.1201/9781003300502-17
17
Narcotics and Brain Health
Rashid Hussain, Shabana Bibi, Muhammad Asad Ali,
Shopnil Akash, Nobendu Mukerjee, Ammara Saleem,
and Athanasios Alexiou
17.1 INTRODUCTION
Americans spend more than seven hundred billion dollars annually on higher healthcare expenditures,
violence, and lost productivity as a consequence of the use and abuse of illegal and prescribed drugs
[1– 3]. Alcohol is a factor in the fatalities of more than 90,000 Americans each year, while illegit -
imate and narcotic high intake cause tens of thousands of mortalities each year (almost 70,000 in
2018). Tobacco usage is thought to be responsible for 480,000 deaths annually [4, 5].
The negative effects of drug usage and addiction affect individuals of all ages;
• Teenagers who use drugs may disobey, poor performance in school, or drop out [6].
•
thinking effectively.
• Drug use by parents can result in stressful families and abuse and neglect of children [7].
These things are harmful to the development and well- being of children at home, and they
may pave the way for descendants to use drugs [8].
• Fetuses exposed to drugs have a higher chance of being underdeveloped and underweight
when they are born [9].
Researchers study the impact of drugs on the brain and behaviour. They make use of this informa-
normal, healthy functioning and are usually preventable and treatable. If not treated, they may per-
sist for a lifetime and possibly cause death [10]. The following are common reasons why people
use narcotics: drugs can cause extremely intense pleasure. Depending on the medication taken,
depressed, or anxious begin taking medications in an effort to feel less anxious [11]. Some people
feel the need to focus more intently on their work, studies, or sporting endeavours. This might affect
someone’s decision to try or continue taking drugs like amphetamine or prescription stimulants.
If risk factors, such as the presence of companions who use drugs, are present, substance use may
begin at any point during the adolescent growth period [12].
effects. They can also believe that they are in charge of their consumption. However, abusing
drugs may fundamentally alter a person’s life. Other fun activities soon become less enjoyable
13]. They strive
329
Narcotics and Brain Health
to control their addiction despite the harm that drug use poses to them and their loved ones. Most
users may start to feel the need to use drugs more frequently or in larger doses, even in the early
stages of their addiction. Addiction is indicated by these symptoms. Narcotic use is risky, even in
very moderate amounts. Think about how a social drinker may get drunk, get in a car, and rapidly
transform a fun pastime into a catastrophe that destroys many people. Even casual drug use can
still have devastating consequences, including driving while intoxicated, such as when an opioid is
misused to get high [14].
feature [15]. Research on brain imaging in addicts reveals physical changes in brain areas crucial
for judgement, decision- making, memories, cognition, and behavioural control [16]. The obsessive
varies from individual to individual, just like it does with other diseases and disorders, and no one
characteristic indicates whether a person will become hooked to narcotics. The more risk factors an
individual has, the more likely they are to use drugs and become addicted [17] (Table 17.1).
17.2 BIOLOGICAL ELEMENTS MAKE ADDICTION TO DRUGS MORE LIKELY
An individual’s propensity to become addicted might depend on a variety of factors, including their
genetic makeup, developmental stage, colour, and gender. It is believed that genes have a role in
between 40– 60 % of a person’s likelihood of becoming addicted, including how environmental
factors affect a person’s gene expression [32]. In addition, drug use and addiction are more prevalent
in young individuals and those with mental problems than in the general population [33].
17.2.1 environmental riSk faCtorS
Home, work, and community factors all fall under the category of the environment. The following
elements may have an impact on one’s risk. The home environment is very important, especially in
early development. When parents or other older family members abuse drugs, alcohol, or the law,
children are more likely to experience drug problems in the future [34]. During the adolescent years,
-
demically or socially, their propensity to use drugs or become addicted to them may rise [35].
17.2.2 additional elementS booSt the ChanCeS of drug addiCtion
Although consuming narcotics at any time can lead to addiction, data suggests that the sooner a
person begins using narcotics, the more likely they will encounter serious troubles [36]. This may
TABLE 17.1
Risk factors and defending elements of individual related to drugs
Risk Factors Defending Elements
Childhood aggression [18, 19] 20]
Inadequate parental oversight [19, 21] Parental supervision and assistance [21 – 23]
Low peer rejection abilities [18, 22, 23] Connections that are fruitful [22, 24]
Testing for drugs [19, 25, 26] Excellent academic performance [23, 27]
Narcotics usage in schools [25, 28] Drug- free schools policies [22]
29, 30] Community resources [31]
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Plant-based Foods and their Implications in Brain Health
be due to the detrimental effects that medications may have on the growth of the brain [37]. Early
genetic and social risk factors, such as an unstable home or family, having experienced physical or
sexual abuse, possessing certain genes, or suffering from a mental disease, may all play a role in
how it develops. A drug’s potential for addiction is increased when it is smoked or injected into a
vein [38, 39]. Drugs taken orally or intravenously both quickly enter the brain and cause a strong
surge of pleasure. This powerful high may, however, pass quickly. According to scientists, this stark
difference causes some people to frequently take drugs in an attempt to recreate the transitory sense
of pleasure.
Teens are more likely to experiment with drugs or continue using them since their prefrontal cortex
is still maturing in the brain. Drug use at this stage of brain development has the potential to alter
40]. In spite of the negative effects that follow from taking
a moral issue and a result of making poor decisions, addiction is now increasingly acknowledged as
a chronic, relapsing condition that entails potentially long- lasting alterations to the brain [41, 42].
brought on by prolonged substance use. Drug use is initially a decision made by the user, but when
brain chemistry changes and addiction set in, the user’s capacity to manage their usage decreases
[43]. According to NIDA, both addiction and cardiovascular disease cause an important body organ
41]. To achieve long-
lasting recovery, an addict frequently needs therapy, sometimes numerous courses of treatment [44].
People in therapy can learn how to control their addiction and acquire the tools and abilities they
17.3 DRUGS HARM THE BRAIN CELLS PERMANENTLY
The long- term outcomes of various drugs on the brain might differ. While most people experience
the alterations that lead to addiction, several drug classes are linked to additional, distinctive effects
on the brain. The alterations to the brain that are covered below are not a complete list of all possible
changes brought on by using these medicines [45]. Narcotics affect the brain in the following ways
[46]: variations in the white matter tracts of the brain will be affected, such as antisocial conduct,
violence and aggressiveness, which may be related to abnormalities of the white matter pathways in
the brain [47]. Alterations in the functional connectivity of certain brain areas take place, and issues
with cognitive processing may result from disrupted interconnection. It could also be a sign of alter-
ations in how the brain is structured. Both a reduction in amygdala volume and a problem with how
well the amygdala processes information [48].
17.3.1 opioid overdoSe and brain injury
The prevalence of very strong synthetic opioids like fentanyl on the black market puts those who
depression that, if not addressed right away, can lead to damage from hypoxia. Hypoxia describes a
lack of oxygen in the tissues [49
Hypoxia- related brain damage may lead to [50]:
• Ambiguity.
• Memory issues, such as loss of recent memories.
• A shift in behaviour.
• Deteriorated cognitive abilities.
• Slower movement and reaction times.
331
Narcotics and Brain Health
• Issues with walking.
• Damage to the nerves.
• Chronic stress.
17.3.2 alCoholiC effeCtS on the brain
Alcohol affects the brain in many different ways during a short period of time, including slowing
reaction times and memory loss, but it can also cause serious long- term damage. For instance,
prolonged alcohol consumption may cause brain shrinkage, with women possibly being more sus-
ceptible [51].
Alcoholism can indirectly impact the brain as well. Alcoholism frequently causes inadequate
Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, up to 80% of people with alcohol use disorders have a
52]. Unfortunately, the brain may suffer greatly as a result of this: Wernicke-
Korsakoff syndrome, a condition that combines Wernicke’s encephalopathy with Korsakoff’s
51]. Its symptoms include uncertainty,
neurological eye paralysis, a decline in motor coordination and serious issues with learning and
memory. Alcohol is also well recognized to be particularly bad for the brain’s development.
Drinking alcohol while pregnant can lead to a variety of challenges, from behavioural problems to
disorder may result in distinctive facial characteristics, a smaller brain, and fewer healthy brain
cells [51].
17.3.3 Stimulant effeCtS on the brain
worrisome for someone who has been addicted to stimulants. Young people with growing brains
may be particularly vulnerable to these alterations [45].
Abuse of illegal psychostimulants like cocaine and methamphetamine is associated with
depressed symptoms. When stimulants are not used, symptoms like depression or irritability fre-
quently go away. Even after extended periods of sobriety, additional symptoms like anhedonia (the
inability to experience pleasure) and lack of desire might yet endure [53].
Paranoia, delusions, and other psychotic symptoms are common in long- term methamphetamine
users and might last even after they stop taking the substance. In previous meth users, stressful
circumstances may have resulted in spontaneous psychosis [54]. Persistent methamphetamine use
can change the shape and working of the brain in ways that affect memory and emotional pro-
prescription use [55
or unproductive activities, which would make long- term addiction treatment much more challen-
ging [56].
17.4 NARCOTICS AND BRAIN HEALTH
discovered that the brain, not the heart, was in charge of controlling the body and that the senses
were reliant on it. Following Alcmaeon, several researchers, thinkers, and medical professionals
from different countries proceeded to advance our knowledge of neuroanatomy. The most sig-
332
Plant-based Foods and their Implications in Brain Health
whose research involved brain dissection [57]. The traditional taboo against dissection persisted
in the Renaissance, it was once more permitted to autopsy human beings, reviving the study of
neuroscience (Figure 17.1). The brain system has been extensively studied and documented
over the following centuries. But we are nowhere near the limit of our comprehension at this
point [58].
The brain consists of billions of neurons, and they transmit information. If a neuron receives
the other neurons in the circuit. The brain is made up of several interconnected circuits that work
together as a unit. Task coordination and execution are carried out by many brain circuits [59].
Networks of neurons that exchange messages (the peripheral nervous system) connect the spinal
cord, several brain areas, and the rest of the body’s nerves [60] (Figure 17.1).
The delivery, reception, and processing of signals by neurons via neurotransmitters are all
impacted by drugs [61]. Because certain drugs’ molecular structures resemble those of the body’s
natural neurotransmitters, such as heroin and marijuana, they can increase brain activity. This makes
the drugs’ ability to bind to and excite the neurons dependable [62] (Figure 17.2).
Cocaine and amphetamine are two examples of additional drugs that may either inhibit the
normal recycling of these neurotransmitters in the brain by interfering with transporters or cause
exceptionally high levels of natural neurotransmitter release from neurons. Additionally, this inten-
63].
Addictive drug use that is characterized by compulsive drug use can be brought on by narcotics,
which have the ability to alter critical brain areas necessary for vital functioning [64]. Narcotic
usage has an effect on the following areas of the brain:
• The basal ganglia are responsible for the development of routines and habits, as well as
sometimes referred to. When this circuit is strongly impacted by drugs, the euphoria of the
narcotic high is created. But with repeated exposure, the circuit loses sensitivity to drug use
and struggles more to get pleasure from sources other than drugs [65].
FIGURE 17.1 Graphical view of the brain presenting different dissectional compartments.
333
Narcotics and Brain Health
•
as drug use rises. Drug usage by an addict changes over time from being primarily about
getting high to also serving as a means of short- term pain relief [66].
• Thinking, planning, problem- solving, making decisions, and exerting self- control over desires
are all functions of the prefrontal cortex. Teenagers are especially vulnerable since the pre-
frontal cortex is the last part of the brain to mature. When the balance between this circuit,
the basal ganglia, and an enlarged amygdala shifts, the result is obsessive drug- seeking and
impaired impulsive behaviour in an individual with a substance use problem [67].
Some drugs, such as opioids, also have an impact on other regions of the brain, including the
brain stem, which controls basic physiological functions like breathing, relaxation, and heart rate.
Overdosing might induce delayed breathing and possibly death as a result of this interference [68].
17.5 HOW DO NARCOTICS MAKE YOU FEEL GOOD?
Although the reason for the joy or euphoria experienced after consuming drugs is yet unknown, it
is believed to be brought on by increases in the body’s endogenous opioids (endorphins) and other
FIGURE 17.2 Process of cell signalling proceeded by neuron networks.