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xi
Editors’ bio
Soumya Mukherjee has accomplished his PhD in Plant Physiology from
the Department of Botany, University of Delhi, India. He has been an ex-
faculty of Ramjas College, University of Delhi. Currently, he is employed
as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Botany, Jangipur College,
University of Kalyani, West Bengal, India. He has worked as a CSIR-
research fellow in the area of abiotic stress physiology of plants. He has
published both research and review articles in various peer- reviewed
international journals (SCOPUS and SCI indexed). He is serving as an
associate editor in the editorial board of Plant Signalling and Behaviour
(Taylor and Francis) and the Journal of Plant Growth Regulation
(Springer). He has been working in the area of salinity stress physiology
Investigator on a DST- SERB funded ‘State University Research Excellence Grant’ (2023) on the
He has authored an e- learning module in Plant Physiology and Biochemistry published as an effort
of the National Mission on Education through ICT (MHRD Project undertaken by the University of
Delhi). He has acted as a subject reviewer for various SCOPUS- indexed peer- reviewed international
journals. He has published edited volumes in Plant Signaling, and Communication (Springer),
Rhizobiology (Springer), Phytomelatonin (Springer), Crop sustainability and IPR (Apple academic
press), Strigolactones, Alkamides and Karrikins (CRC press).
Ramakrishna Akula is currently a scientist at Bayer Science and
Innovation Pvt.Ltd., Vegetable R&D, Bangalore, India. Dr. Ramakrishna
holds a master’s degree from Sri Krishna Devaraya University,
Anantapur, Andhra Pradesh, India. He obtained his PhD in biochem-
istry from the University of Mysore, CSIR- CFTRI, Mysuru. He is a
Senior Research Fellow of CSIR, New Delhi. He is involved in various
-
ondary metabolites, Food Science and Technology and Vegetable
quality analytics. He has published several research papers in leading
international journals, books, reviews and book chapters. He also serves
as an editorial board member and reviewer for reputed international
journals. Presented over 20 research papers in symposia in India and
abroad, as well as a few invited lectures in India. He attended the Fifth International Symposium
on Plant Neurobiology held in 2009 in Florence, Italy. He also attended the Technical Community
of Monsanto (TCM) held in 2016 in St. Louis, Missouri. He is a member of the Indian Science
Congress Association and Society for Biotechnologists (India). He is a fellow of the Society for
Applied Biotechnology, India (2012), and recipient of the Global Vegetable Research Excellence
Award (2017), Global Technology Recognition, Rapid Recognition Award, and Special recognition
from the Monsanto company.
xii
Editors’ Bio
Atanu Bhattacharjee is currently working as a Professor at the School
of Pharmacy, The Assam Royal Global University, Assam, India. He is
Dr. Bhattacharjee earned his Ph.D. in Pharmaceutical Sciences from
Nitte University, Mangalore, India. His area of research is phytochem-
istry and neuro- pharmacology. He worked extensively on various in-
silico, in- vitro and in- vivo experiments to encounter neuro- degenerative
disorders like Alzheimer’s disease, etc., with folklore medicine of
medicinal plants. More than 25 research and review articles published in internationally acclaimed
journals are under his credentials. In 2021, he received the prestigious “Young Scientist Award”
research. His extensive work on natural products to encounter SARS COV- 2 has been recognized
globally as he has received a patent from South Africa in 2022 on ‘Bioinformatics platform for
He also has 5 Indian patents under his credentials. He was the Honourable Academic Editor of
Asian Journal of Medicine and Health, SCIENCEDOMAIN International, India till 2021. He is
also an editorial board member and reviewer of many internationally reputed journals. Recently,
he has edited a book entitled “Computational and Experimental Studies in Alzheimer’s Disease.
[ISBN: 9781003412069]” Taylor & Francis, CRC Press. USA. 2024;
xiii
Contributors
Navidha Aggarwal
MM College of Pharmacy,
Maharishi Markandeshwar (Deemed to be
University),
Mullana 133207, Ambala, Haryana, India
Shopnil Akash
Faculty of Allied Health Science,
Department of Pharmacy,
Daffodil International University, Daffodil
Smart City,
Ashulia, Savar, Dhaka 1207, Bangladesh
Athanasios Alexiou
Department of Science and Engineering,
Novel Global Community Educational
Foundation,
Habersham, NSW, 2770, Australia
Muhammad Asad Ali
Department of Biosciences,
COMSATS University,
Islamabad, Pakistan
Mamoni Banerjee
Bio-Research Laboratory,
Rajendra Mishra School of Engineering
Entrepreneurship,
Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur,
Kharagpur, India
Atanu Bhattacharjee
Royal School of Pharmacy,
The Assam Royal Global University,
Guwahati 781035,
Assam, India
Bedanta Bhattacharjee
Girijananda Chowdhury Institute of
Pharmaceutical Science,
Tezpur 784501, Assam, India
Paramita Bhattacharjee
Department of Food Technology and
Biochemical Engineering,
Jadavpur University,
Kolkata, India
Arghya Bhattacharya
Department of Pharmacology,
Bengal School of Technology,
Chinsurah R S, Sugandha,
West Bengal 712102, India
Kunal Bhattacharya
Pratiksha Institute of Pharmaceutical Science,
Panikhaiti, Guwahati, Assam-781026,
India; and
Royal School of Pharmacy,
The Assam Royal Global University,
Guwahati, Assam 781035, India
Shabana Bibi
Department of Biosciences,
Shifa Tameer-e-Millat University,
Islamabad 44000, Pakistan
Mainak Chakraborty
Department of Pharmaceutical Technology,
NSHM Knowledge Campus,
Kolkata – Group of Institutions,
Kolkata 700053, West Bengal, India
Nongmaithem Randhoni Chanu
Faculty of Pharmaceutical Science, Assam
Downtown University,
Guwahati, Assam 781026, India
Bharti Chaudhry
Professor, Department of Botany,
Ramjas College, University of Delhi,
Delhi, India
Hitesh Chopra
Department of Biosciences,
Saveetha School of Engineering,
Saveetha Institute of Medical and Technical
Sciences,
Chennai-602105, Tamil Nadu, India
Anamika Das
Department of Food Technology and
Biochemical Engineering,
Jadavpur University,
Kolkata, India
xiv
Contributors
Dibyajyoti Das
Pratiksha Institute of Pharmaceutical Science,
Panikhaiti,
Guwahati, Assam 781026, India
Shaileyee Das
Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry,
Bharat Technology,
Azad University of Technology,
West Bengal, India
Sanjukta Datta
Department of Food Technology and
Biochemical Engineering,
Jadavpur University,
Kolkata, India
Biswajit Devanath
Pratiksha Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences,
Guwahati, Assam 781026, India
Ganesh Dey
Department of Pharmaceutical Technology,
University of North Bengal, Darjeeling,
West Bengal, India
G.P. Dubey
Department of Kriya Sharir,
Faculty of Àyurveda, I.M.S., B.H.U.,
Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India
Nilanjan Ghosh
Department of Pharmaceutical Technology,
Jadavpur University,
Kolkata 700032, West Bengal, India
Farah Alam Gill
Department of Biosciences,
Shifa Tameer-e-Millat University,
Islamabad 44000, Pakistan
Simran Giri
Department of Pharmaceutical Technology,
University of North Bengal, Darjeeling,
West Bengal, India
Rashid Hussain
Department of Biosciences,
Shifa Tameer-e-Millat University,
Islamabad 44000, Pakistan
Sana Javed
Department of Biosciences,
Shifa Tameer-e-Millat University,
Islamabad 44000, Pakistan
Sajal Kumar Jha
Department of Pharmaceutical Technology,
Adamas University,
Kolkata 700126, West Bengal, India
Pratap Kalita
Pratiksha Institute of Pharmaceutical
Sciences,
Guwahati, Assam, India, 781026
Ramen Kalita
Pratiksha Institute of Pharmaceutical Science,
Panikhaiti, Guwahati, Assam 781026, India
Ranjan Dutta Kalita
Department of Biotechnology,
Royal School of Biosciences, The Assam
Royal Global University,
Betkuchi, Guwahati 781035, India
Dipanjan Karati
Department of Pharmaceutical Technology,
School of Pharmacy, Techno India University,
Kolkata, West Bengal 700091, India
Ankit Kumar
Agriculture and Food Engineering
Department,
Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur,
Kharagpur, West Bengal 721302, India
Rinki Kumari
ITRC-ECD_ICMR- Head quarter,
New Delhi, India
Robert Lalonde
Laboratory of Stress, Immunity, Pathogens
(EA7300),
University of Lorraine, Medical School,
54500 Vandoeuvre- les- Nancy, France
Garima Malik
ITRC-ECD_ ICMR- Head Quarter,
New Delhi, India
xv
Contributors
Subhash C. Mandal
Pharmacognosy and Phytotherapy Research
Laboratory,
Division of Pharmacognosy,
Department of Pharmaceutical Technology,
Jadavpur University,
Kolkata 700032, India
Soumya Mitra
Dr. B.C. Roy College of Pharmacy &
Allied Health Sciences,
Durgapur,
West Bengal 713206, India
Swarupananda Mukherjee
Department of Pharmaceutical Technology,
NSHM Knowledge Campus,
Kolkata –Group of Institutions,
124, B. L. Saha Road, Kolkata 700053,
West Bengal, India
Nobendu Mukerjee
Center for Global Health Research, Saveetha
Medical College and Hospital,
Saveetha Institute of Medical and Technical
Sciences,
Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India
Debabrata Nath
Pratiksha Institute of Pharmaceutical Science,
Panikhaiti, Guwahati, Assam 781026, India
Yutika Nath
Serology Division, State Forensic Science
Laboratory,
Directorate of Forensic Sciences,
Kahilipara, Guwahati 781019, India
Olakunle J. Onaolapo
Behavioural Neuroscience/Neuropharmacology
Unit,
Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics,
Faculty of Basic Clinical Sciences,
Ladoke Akintola University of Technology,
Ogbomoso, Oyo State, Nigeria
Adejoke Y. Onaolapo
Behavioural Neuroscience/Neurobiology Unit,
Department of Anatomy, Faculty of Basic
Medical Sciences,
Ladoke Akintola University of Technology,
Ogbomoso, Oyo State, Nigeria
Prosanta Pal
Department of Pharmaceutical Technology,
University of North Bengal, Darjeeling,
West Bengal, India
Pawan Prabhakar
Bio-Research Laboratory,
Rajendra Mishra School of Engineering
Entrepreneurship,
Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur,
Kharagpur; and
Woxsen University,
Hyderabad 502345, India
Surender Prasad
Pratiksha Institute of Pharmaceutical
Sciences,
Guwahati, Assam 781026, India
Tasrina Rahman
Pratiksha Institute of Pharmaceutical
Sciences,
Guwahati, Assam 781026, India
Sunil Kumar Rai
Department of Cell and Molecular Biology,
Medical University of the Americas, Nevis,
Saint Kitts and Nevis, West Indies KN 1101
Akula Ramakrishna
Bayer Research and Development Centre,
Kallinayaknahalli Village,
Karnataka 561213, India
Souvik Roy
Department of Pharmaceutical
Technology, NSHM Knowledge Campus,
Kolkata – Group of Institutions,
Kolkata 700053, West
Bengal, India
Ram Kumar Sahu
Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences,
Hemvati Nandan Bahuguna Garhwal
University (A Central University), Chauras
Campus,
Tehri Garhwal 249161, Uttarakhand, India
xvi
Contributors
Ammara Saleem
Department of Pharmacology,
Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences,
Government College University Faisalabad,
Faisalabad 38000, Pakistan
Bapi Ray Sarkar
Department of Pharmaceutical Technology,
University of North Bengal, Darjeeling,
West Bengal, India
Nilanjan Sarkar
Department of Pharmaceutical
Technology, NSHM Knowledge Campus,
Kolkata – Group of Institutions,
Kolkata 700053, West Bengal, India
Satyabrat Sarma
Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences,
Assam Down Town University,
Guwahati, Assam 781026, India
Sneh Shalini
ITRC-ECD_ ICMR-Head Quarter,
New Delhi, India
Rahul Kumar Sharma
Amar Shaheed Baba Ajit Singh Jujhar Singh
Memorial College of Pharmacy,
Bela, Ropar, India
Vanshika Sharma
Department of Biotechnology,
Royal School of Biosciences,
The Assam Royal Global University,
Betkuchi, Guwahati 781035, India
Jasmeet Singh
Faculty of Àyurveda, I.M.S., B.H.U.,
Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India
Nanki Singh
Govt. Ayu. College,
Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India
Catherine Strazielle
Laboratory of Stress, Immunity,
Pathogens (EA7300),
University of Lorraine, Medical School,
54500 Vandoeuvre-les-Nancy, France
Jaweria Syed
Department of Rehabilitation Sciences,
Shifa Tameer-e-Millat University,
Islamabad 44000, Pakistan
Shilpa Thakur
Amar Shaheed Baba Ajit Singh Jujhar Singh
Memorial College of Pharmacy,
Bela, Ropar, India
newgenprepdf
1
DOI: 10.1201/9781003300502-1
1
Neurobiology
An Overview
Rashid Hussain, Shabana Bibi, Ammara Saleem,
Arghya Bhattacharya, Jaweria Syed, Nobendu Mukerjee,
and Athanasios Alexiou
1.1 INTRODUCTION
The nervous system (NS) of humans has been a matter of keen study since the era of Hippocrates,
from the Greek civilization that is well renowned as the ‘Father of Medicine’. He observed that our
brain is the organ used to regulate and recognize functions and emotions in the human body [1].
After his efforts, a physician studied the brain and, after dissections, explored the NS, which had
ventricles in the cerebral hemisphere and cerebellum, vessels both for sensory and motor inputs [2].
Human physiology is complex, and so is the barrier system protecting the most vital region
known as the NS. Basic immune reactions are regulated and halted by their specialized mechanisms
[3]. A functional set of cells making tissues and, ultimately, an organ meant to regulate bodily
responses based on any intrinsic or extrinsic stimulus constitutes an NS. Topographically, it has
two principal divisions, the central and peripheral NS [4]. The brain and spinal cord constitute the
central nervous system (CNS) [5]. There are 24 cranial nerves (12 pairs) and 62 spinal nerves (31
pairs) in the peripheral nervous system (PNS). All ganglia are connected with these two types of
nerves (cranial and spinal nerves), along with bilateral sympathetic and parasympathetic pelvic
nerve chains [4].
The PNS carries sensory stimuli from the environment, whether internal or external, to the CNS
6]. The somatic and
human NS functional divisions [7]. The autonomic NS is not under voluntary control and has fur-
ther divisions such as sympathetic, parasympathetic, and enteric divisions. Its afferent and efferent
-
acic, abdominal region, pelvis with perineal viscera, and smooth visceral muscle with glands. The
submucosal and myenteric plexuses and their related elements make up the enteric NS within the
digestive system. This is an autonomous system functionally, which is regulated by parasympathetic
and sympathetic NS [6]. The cranial cavity initially has two sets of blood vessels for arterial blood
entry: the internal carotid arteries, which are intended for anterior brain circulation, and the vertebral
together, and they are located within subarachnoid cisterns placed at the base of the brain. This circle
has four vessels, which manage the blood perfusion and serve as a protective mechanism against any
blood compromise. The cerebrum is supplied by internal carotid arteries. The basil artery supplies
the brain stem and cerebellum as a whole through the vertebral arteries [8].
2
Plant-based Foods and their Implications in Brain Health
1.2 NERVOUS SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT
It can be challenging to differentiate between the grey and white matter that make up the com-
plex organ that is the brain [5]. The embryonic neural system is essentially just a straight line in
the beginning before becoming progressively more sophisticated. In the adult organism, several
structures that appear to be near one another are not linked, and the links that do exist may seem
random. However, the system has an underlying order that results from the way various components
grow. Whenever sperm and egg cells fuse together, a fertilized egg is produced. An organism is
produced by the division of a zygote. One of the three germ layers is made up of embryonic cells
that develop into various body tissues 16 days after conception. The mucosae of the various body
parts, as well as the respiratory and digestive systems, constitute the endoderm. The mesoderm
mainly makes up the muscle and connective tissues. Ultimately, the ectoderm forms the NS and the
integumentary system (the skin) [9].
the ancestor of the NS tissue as the child grows. Cells in this area are induced by molecular impulses
to develop into neuroepithelium, developing a neural plate. The tissue buckles and folds inward
as the cells start to change shape (Figure 1.1). Along the embryo’s dorsal surface, a neural groove
develops and appears as a line. The term ‘neural fold’ refers to the ridge- like margin that resides on
either side of the neural groove. The neural tube is a tube- like structure that forms right below the
ectoderm as the neural folds come together. The neural crest is produced from the ectoderm by the
breakdown of the cells in the neural folds, which extend dorsally to the neural tube. The develop-
ment of the neural crest into the components of the PNS occurs when the neural crest migrates away
from the developing, or embryonic, CNS, which will emerge along the neural groove. Melanocytes,
craniofacial bone, and cartilage are only a few tissues that develop from the neural crest that are not
connected to the central NS [6].
FIGURE 1.1 Graphical view of embryonic development of the brain.
3
Neurobiology: An Overview
Currently, the primitive NS is a simple, tubular structure. It covers the entire embryo, from the
front to the back [10]. The brain begins to form at the front end around 25 days, and the spinal cord
forms at the posterior end. By the fourth week of growth, the NS’s most basic tissue organization
gives way to more intricate structures. A few enlargements occur when the anterior end of the
neural tube begins to form the brain, which leads to the formation of pouch chambers. Like a child’s
in the formation of three primary vesicles. Greek words were used for the names of these vesicles,
encephalon being the primary root word, which means ‘brain’ (en- = ‘inside’; cephalon = ‘head’).
-
alon (pros- = ‘in front’) is known as the forebrain. The mesencephalon (mes- = ‘middle’) is known
as the midbrain. The rhombencephalon is known as the hindbrain [11]. The vesicles differentiate
more as the brain continues to grow (Figure 1.1). Five secondary vesicles are formed from the three
original vesicles. Two more vesicles, the telencephalon, and diencephalon, are formed when the
prosencephalon enlarges. The cerebrum will develop from the telencephalon [10]. The dienceph-
alon gives birth to various adult structures, including the thalamus and hypothalamus. The eye cup
starts to form in the embryo’s diencephalon. It grows into the retina, which is the nerve tissue of
the eye. This is one of the few cases when CNS components in the embryo end up being peripheral
in the adult NS. There are no more precise divisions of the mesencephalon. At the primary vesicle
developmental stage, the midbrain is already developed and stays that way. It is surrounded by the
remainder of the brain, which makes up the majority of the brain mass. The midbrain only makes up
a small percentage of the whole brain [5]. The metencephalon and myelencephalon grow out of the
rhombencephalon. The cerebellum develops from the metencephalon, which belongs to the pons in
adults. About 10% of the mass of the brain is made up of the cerebellum, which is a crucial compo-
nent of the brain and is known as the ‘small brain’ in Latin. The strongest connections between the
cerebellum and the rest of the brain are found in the pons, which develop from the same vesicle as
the cerebellum. The medulla oblongata and the myelencephalon are mature structures that are alike.
The brainstem includes the midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata [12].
1.2.1 Spinal Cord development
The cells that make up the neural tube’s wall expand and develop into the spinal cord’s neurons
and glia as the spinal cord grows. Dorsal tissues will be connected to sensory functions, whereas
motor activities will be connected to ventral tissues [13]. Cells stretch across the apical and basal
is originally just one group of undifferentiated stem cells in the neuroepithelium [6]. These cells
eventually give birth to the neuronal and glial stem cells, the two major lineages, as well as several
sub- lineages. After the last mitotic division, neurons move from the neural tube ventricle to create
of the developing brain, direct this outward proliferation. As more post- mitotic neuronal cells build
up in the neural tube, the neural tube gets thicker, and the CNS, brain, and spinal cord get bigger [7].
1.3 TOUCH AND PAIN
to the spinal cord [14]. Pain is the result of nerve impulses travelling up the spinal cord and being
processed by the thalamus, the brainstem, and the cortex. The midbrain is the source of a network
of neurons that may inhibit these communications. The information carried by this descending route
reaches the spinal cord, where it inhibits the uptake of tissue damage signals by higher brain areas
[15]. Touch receptors deliver signals to the spinal cord through sensory nerves, which then synapse
or make contact with other nerve cells in the spinal cord and are relayed to the thalamus and sensory