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Plant-based Foods and their Implications in Brain Health
through phospholipase D2- mediated internalization of Toll- like receptor 4 (TLR- 4) (57).
induced oxidative stress and cytotoxicity in PC12 cells of rat adrenal medulla (58).
9.5 BRAIN CELL PROTECTIVE ACTIVITY OF WALNUT PHYTOCHEMICALS:
IN- VIVO AND CLINICAL STUDIES
Recent in- vivo and human trials suggested that long- term dietary supplementation with walnuts
may provide a prophylactic effect against mild cognitive impairment and AD.
9.5.1 animal StudieS
tg) animals (dose 28– 42 g/ day for 14 months p.o.) showed improvement in memory and learning
behaviour, motor coordination, and the results were comparable with placebo drugs i.e. a control
diet without walnuts (59). In another study, adult Wistar rats (aged 19 months old), a diet with 6%
walnuts showed improvement in cognitive and motor activities (60).
9.5.2 CliniCal trialS in humanS
In two different PREDIMED clinical trials viz. Prevención con Dieta Mediterránea, healthy adults
were subjected to a Mediterranean diet (dose: 30 g mixed nuts/ day (15 g walnuts, 7.5 g hazelnuts,
and 7.5 g almonds)) showed elevated nootropic activities compared to the control group on a low-
fat diet (61).
During clinical trials, two different sets of human volunteers viz. i) 522 adults (mean age: 74.6 years)
diet on global cognitive performance was assessed by the Mini- Mental State Examination (MMSE)
and Clock Drawing Test (CDT) after 6.5 years of dietary intervention without baseline evaluation. The
second study examined rates of memory and behavioural changes with time by comparing scores from
six different neuropsychological tests after 4.1 years of Mediterranean diet (62).
In another clinical trial (human volunteer no.: 15,467 women; mean age: 74 years), the long- term
intake of walnuts demonstrated better cognitive performance. The National Health and Nutrition
Examination Survey (NHANES) of an adult population (two different age groups (20– 59 years;
60 years and older)) in the United States found that walnut eating improved cognitive scores.
Another study of 64 young adults examined the effects of short- term (8- week) dietary supplemen-
tation with walnuts on cognitive performance (63). Memory, mood states, verbal reasoning, and
non- verbal reasoning were assessed at baseline and at the end of the 8- week nutritional intervention
This may be because dietary supplementation of walnuts occurred for only eight weeks in this study
(64). The potential neuroprotective mechanism of walnuts as brain food is shown in Figure 9.4.
9.6 CONCLUSION
reduce oxidative stress by scavenging ROS/ RNS and increase antioxidant defence, thereby reducing
LPO (65). Even in the absence of particular neurodegenerative illnesses, this process of brain
205
Walnut (Juglans regia L.) as Brain Food
ageing happens. Although most chronic neurodegenerative illnesses cannot presently be treated,
early intervention can safeguard cognitive function in old age and may prevent or postpone the onset
of devastating neurodegenerative disorders (66, 67
cantly, help to sustain the healthy neuronal environment of the brain. The polyphenolic compounds
-
attenuate protein aggregation involved in AD (68–70). Dietary intervention with walnuts showed
and also provided prophylaxis to delay the progression of different neurodegenerative diseases (62).
In humans, the inclusion of walnuts in the diet improved cardiovascular health, which is itself a risk
factor for neurodegenerative diseases and age- related cognitive decline (71, 72). Taken together,
this evidence suggests that the integration of walnuts into a healthy diet could be an effective means
of prolonging health spans, slowing the processes of brain ageing, and reducing the risk of chronic
neurodegenerative disease.
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DOI: 10.1201/9781003300502-10
10
A Molecular Insight into
Plant Bioactive Congeners
as Neuroprotective
Therapeutics
Swarupananda Mukherjee, Dipanjan Karati,
Mainak Chakraborty, Nilanjan Sarkar, Souvik Roy,
and Sajal Kumar Jha
10.1 INTRODUCTION
With numerous risk factors contributing to the trend, the development of mental disorders and
neurodegenerative diseases are the key challenges worldwide that modern society must overcome
as a crucial tactic to lessen this burden [2]. Approximately one new dementia case is diagnosed
every 3.2 seconds, or 9.9 million new cases are reported yearly [3]. In addition to the hardship
brought on by this debilitating neurological disease, healthcare costs are rising rapidly over time
[4]. Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is the senile decay of neurons. Two crucial characteristics, extracel-
lular beta- amyloid deposition and intracellular tau hyperphosphorylation, are the hallmarks of the
pathophysiology of AD illness [5– 7]. Due to the complex nature of NDDs, new drug- based psy -
chotropic therapies have had a modest success rate. New products that can target multiple receptors
and improve behavioural capacities on their own or in conjunction with conventional treatments are
thus becoming more and more necessary. Both industrialised and developing nations have seen sig-
and medical professionals have created an arsenal of medicinal plants worldwide that may be able
to treat the symptoms of brain dysfunctions. The importance of phytocompounds in reducing the
symptoms of NDDs is highlighted in several articles. However, this article’s main goal is to review
recent studies critically.
10.2 BRIEF ATTENTION ON NDDS
Disorders of the nervous system known as neurodegenerative diseases (NDDs) are often distinguished
result in their accumulation in the human brain, where they promote neuronal degeneration [8].
developed countries. As the information piles up, the same scenario is expected in developing coun-
tries [9– 10].
210
Plant-based Foods and their Implications in Brain Health
10.2.1 alzheimer’S diSeaSe (ad)
origin. The glutamate receptor subtype of the N- methyl- D- aspartate (NMDA) receptor. To regu-
late synaptic plasticity and brain activity, NMDA receptors are essential. The NMDA receptor, one
binds to this receptor (ion channel) [11– 12]. The brain’s cells are affected due to AD resulting in
lessening intellectual functioning. Memory loss, senile dementia, the development of intra- neuronal
in the cerebral parenchyma are the cascade consequences of AD [13– 20]. Microglia, resident mye -
loid cells in the central nervous system [21
have become a potential therapeutic target for the disease’s prevention and treatment. The patho-
physiology of Alzheimer’s disease has been linked to microglial provocation [22]. In the mature
brain, microglia are involved in developing cognitive skills, including learning and intelligence
[23– 24]. By eliminating damaged cells and improperly folded proteins from the body, microglia
contribute to the maintenance of homeostasis [25– 30]. It was estimated that dementia would cost
the world $1 trillion in 2018 and $2 trillion in 2030. Hence, understanding the pathophysiology of
dysregulate it. This feature is highly important to highlight the connection between this protein and
the aetiology of this illness [31– 32].
AD therapy and prevention. However, there is currently inadequate information about their ideal
dosages, bioavailability, variations in chemical structures, and potential interactions with other
dietary supplement components. Although additional investigation is required, observational studies
demonstrate that intake consuming food products containing these ingredients has undeniable
advantages.
10.2.2 parkinSon’S diSeaSe (pd)
It is characterized by the loss of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra (SN) [33]. Slow
movement, shaking, rigidity, trouble walking, and behavioural issues are some of the disease’s ini-
tial symptoms [34]. It is a condition with a late onset that affects 1– 2% of adults over 60 [35]. The
aberrant production of Lewy bodies is one of the unique neuropathological abnormalities in the
brain. However, noradrenergic, adrenergic, glutamatergic, cholinergic, and GABAergic nerve cells
also exhibit the same cytoskeleton damage as dopaminergic nigrostriatal neurons degenerate and
develop Lewy bodies [36]. Progressive and targeted degeneration of dopaminergic neurons occurs
in the SN [37].
10.2.2.1 Neuro- inflammation
A variety of cytokines, chemokines, reactive oxygen species, and secondary messengers are
38]. The
cells responsible for halting brain apoptosis are activated because they exhibit increased phagocytic
activity. Additionally, astrocytes have innate immune receptors that can be activated and lead to the
production of cytokines and chemokines. The permeability of the blood- brain barrier (BBB) can
peripheral lymphocytes to be drawn in and activated in the CNS, resolving the initial injury and
restoring homeostasis [39]. IL- 1- 3, 5- 9, 11- 18, interferons (IFN), and tumour necrosis factor (TNF)
211
Molecular Insight into Plant Bioactive Congeners
-
tory cytokines like TNF- and IL- 6. Numerous phytocompounds with appealing biological features
Figure 10.1).
10.2.2.2 Neuropsychiatric disorders
Neuropsychiatric disorders like mania, major depressive syndrome, and bipolar disorder are thought
to have complex pathogenesis, affecting 4.4% of the earth’s total population (322 million individ-
uals) [40– 41
sadness, emptiness, anhedonia (lack of pleasure), and disrupted sleep, characterize these illnesses.
on by the interplay of immune system genetic predisposition and environmental variables such as
hypoxia and infections [42
43– 47].
10.2.2.2.1 Phytomedicines in the Treatment of Brain Disorders
A diverse range of natural bioactive substances in plants is known as phytochemicals. In neuro-
operate as protective agents [48]. Treating neurological symptoms with phytochemicals has been
widely employed, but its underlying mechanism of action is still unknown. One of the mechanisms
FIGURE 10.1
212
Plant-based Foods and their Implications in Brain Health
agents [49]. Numerous phytochemicals can change the excitability of neurons by blocking or acti-
vating certain ion channels or receptors [50- 51]. By concentrating on the chemical interactions
of these compounds with distinct cellular targets, we have explored the potential effectiveness of
bioactive scaffolds as neuroprotective agents against NDDs in this review. The rationale behind
elucidated in Figure 10.2.
10.2.2.2.2 Role of Phytotherapy in the Management of NDDs and NPD-
Historical records show that herbal treatments for NDDs were used as early as 6000 . . in
Ayurvedic medicine in India, China, Africa, and pre- Columbian America, particularly with the
Incas and the Aztecs [52
of NDDs today. The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) views herbal treatments as dietary
supplements rather than prescription medications. The majority of civilizations have a widespread
usage of complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) for NDDs. The National Institutes of
CAM therapies as healthcare and medical practices that are not integral to conventional medicine
as practised in the West [53]. Neuronal illnesses are becoming more common due to a paradigm
FIGURE 10.2 Mechanism of medicinal herbs and phytochemicals in the inhibition of NDDs, and
213
Molecular Insight into Plant Bioactive Congeners
shift in people’s dietary preferences, types of employment, and lifestyles. Due to the rise in NDDs,
dietary management is urgently needed to treat the symptoms connected to the former. However,
the treatment plan and preventative strategy would mostly be tailored to the NDDs, taking into
account the rate of progression, comorbidities, and personal traits of the patient. Consuming
medicinal plants, however, may be able to prevent neuronal damage and provide the nerves with
vital nutrients, while different bioactive may be able to block the disease’s signalling pathways.
Some prominent medicinal herbs employed for treating the latter have been elucidated below.
in Figure 10.3.
FIGURE 10.3 Chemical structures of phytochemicals.