Добавил:
ivanov666
Опубликованный материал нарушает ваши авторские права? Сообщите нам.
Вуз:
Предмет:
Файл:Psychology and pedagogy. Study aid
.pdf
311
al hygiene, communication, etc.). Habituation is effective in the early stages of human ontogenesis. The methodology for its implementation requires explaining to students what, how and why to do. At the same time, training also involves checking the
execution of actions.
An exercise is a repeated repetition of methods of action in order to form the
habit of correct behavior, the optimal algorithm of activity in a specific situation. The
means of the exercise method include adherence to the established order in the family, school, etc., daily routine, properly organized educational activities, and targeted
social assignments. In a broad sense, this is an organization of people’s lives and ac-
tivities that creates conditions for actions in accordance with social norms.
The exercise is based on habituation, is closely connected with it and is implemented through an assignment, the fulfillment of an assigned role in the overall activity. Participation in collective affairs at all stages (planning, execution, evaluation)
develops abilities and shapes personality traits. However, the teacher must take into
account that training and exercise are effective only when they are based on the positive motives of people’s educational, professional and other activities and, in turn,
shape them.
Educational situations are circumstances of difficulty that form the skills of
correct behavior based on independently made choices. They can be specially organized by the teacher. For this purpose, tools for modeling situations, using conflicts in
a group, choosing a solution, etc. are implemented.
Methods for stimulating behavior and activity
The essence of the educational effect of this group of methods is to encourage
socially approved behavior. Their psychological basis is the experience, self-esteem
of the student, comprehension of the act, caused by the assessment of the teacher and
(or) comrades. It is common for a person in a group to focus on recognition, approval
and support for their behavior. This is the basis for correcting people’s behavior
through its assessment.
Encouragement is a set of techniques and means of moral and material stimulation of students in order to encourage them to personal improvement. This method
can also be seen as an expression of positive evaluation, approval and recognition of
the qualities, actions and behavior of the person or group being raised. It evokes a
feeling of satisfaction, self-confidence, positive self-esteem, and stimulates a person
to improve his behavior. Means of encouragement include praise, gratitude from the
teacher and adults, awards with diplomas, certificates, books, and other material in-
312
centives. At the same time, the use of appropriate gestures, facial expressions and
value judgments of the teacher, their encouraging messages, highlighting the behavior or actions of the student as an example to follow is also considered effective.
The method of encouragement recommends approving not only the result, but
also the motive and method of activity, teaching students to value the very fact of approval, and not its material weight. Encouragement is often needed by younger
schoolchildren and teenagers who are not confident in themselves. They are no less
effective for people of other ages.
Criticism is considered as a detailed analysis of the negative personal qualities
of the person being educated or the results of their activities. At the same time, depending on the goals, pedagogy includes among its means: impersonal criticism (for
example: “I will not name the culprit, but ...”), criticism-reproach (“But I counted on
you so much”), criticism-regret (“I’m sorry, but I have to note that...”), as well as
stimulating criticism, criticism-hope, criticism-empathy, criticism-analogy, criticismsurprise, etc.
Coercion is a system of material (for adults only) and pedagogical influences
with the aim of encouraging the student to change the nature and direction of their
deeds and actions. From the point of view of modern domestic pedagogy, it is an extreme method of education and is used only when others do not allow achieving the
desired educational effect.
In domestic pedagogy in the 20s of the 20th century, there was a period of rejection of coercion as a method of education, since it was considered humiliating to
the individual and had negative consequences. However, later the pedagogically
competent use of coercion was recognized as legitimate: it, causing a feeling of
shame and dissatisfaction, corrects the behavior of the student, giving him the opportunity to understand the mistake.
In educational activities, it is necessary to take into account that the coercion
method requires deliberate actions, analysis of the causes of the offense and the
choice of such means of its implementation that do not humiliate the dignity of the
individual. These include a remark or categorical demand from a teacher, a warning
about possible prosecution of stricter liability, a discussion in a group or a call to a
teacher council, transfer to another class or school, or expulsion from school.
In addition to the considered pedagogical methods of education, educational
literature also reflects some other methods of educational interaction with the individual. These include the introduction of new types of activities, changing the content
of communication, the “explosion” method, etc. However, their meaning also lies in
313
influencing the consciousness of the person being educated and meaningfully includes the previously discussed methods of education.
The considered methods used in educational technologies are implemented in
all forms of education, creating conditions for the most complete solution of its problems. However, when choosing, mastering and implementing them, it is necessary to
take into account many factors, including the development of this problem in foreign
pedagogy.
Methods of education in foreign pedagogy
Foreign approaches to education, in particular to the description of the system
of methods, are based mainly on behaviorist psychology and psychoanalysis. According to behaviorism, education is represented as the formation of correct, socially approved behavioral reactions. The psychoanalytic approach considers education as a
process of bringing destructive instinctual drives (“It”) into harmony with the requirements of the “super-ego,” that is, with the norms and rules of social life.
Despite the difference in approaches in Western and domestic pedagogy, there
is a commonality in the methods of influencing the individual. This can be seen in the
example of the pedagogical service of an American school. Its employees — psychologists, social workers, teachers, educators — have the task of providing psychological, pedagogical and social assistance to students in their difficulties: understanding oneself in the world around them, personal self-development, choosing a profession, etc. For this, the service employees use not only pedagogical methods, but also
psychological and even psychotherapeutic. In addition, in domestic and foreign educational technology there are common positions in the approach to organizing pedagogical interaction between educators and students.
Firstly, for example, adults’ explanations of various social, moral, psychologi-
cal and other attitudes primarily realize the possibilities of the persuasion method.
Secondly, group discussions, role-playing games and trainings for 5–20 people
are based on psychotherapeutic techniques. For example, in role-playing games, life
situations are staged and different models of behavior are played out, then recommendations are discussed and made. In this case, the goal of developing communica-
tion skills, behavior, and managing one’s emotions is achieved. Group discussions
led by a facilitator are reminiscent of our methods of organizing activities and developing behavioral experience.
314
Thirdly, extracurricular activities of schoolchildren are also used, in which
methods comparable to our exercises and training are used (for example, music and
other creative festivals, speaking competitions, the game “Democracy”, etc.).
At the same time, it should be noted that, in contrast to domestic practice,
Western schools also use special educational subjects (courses) for education, consisting of a series of lessons, the main goal of which is the formation of consciousness and behavior (for example, a course in conflict resolution). These activities are
called “affective education.”
When analyzing, one can see the commonality in the methods of education in
domestic and foreign pedagogy — an explanation of norms and rules, exercises in activities, discussion of life issues. However, there is a significant difference. It primarily concerns the fact that in foreign pedagogy, psychological and psychotherapeutic
methods are widely used in the interests of education: discussion and acting out situations, psychological training, testing, etc. The positive thing about this is the emphasis of pedagogical attention on self-knowledge, self-development, and selfmanagement. The negative is the limitation of educational work by the capabilities of
the psychological laboratory, underestimation of real activities and real, rather than
playful, solutions to the life problems of the person being educated. This last point is
precisely what is emphasized in Russian pedagogy: to educate means to organize
people’s lives.
The choice of education methods and the technique of their application
The practical use of educational methods poses the question of choosing the
most adequate method and technique for its use. According to pedagogical science,
this depends on many factors: the purpose and content of education, the degree of development of the personal properties and qualities of the pupils, the level of development of interpersonal relationships in the group (team), the authority and experience of the teacher, the age and individual characteristics of the pupils. Thus, in a
poorly developed team, clear educational requirements will be necessary. In a group
with a healthy collective opinion and traditions, advice and individual conversations
are appropriate.
It is rightly believed that there are no absolutely “correct” methods for all ped-
agogical situations. The teacher usually uses a set of methods to achieve goals, creating a strategy of pedagogical interaction designed for a certain time. A master teacher
knows different methods and finds their optimal combination for a specific situation.
315
The template is contraindicated here, since in each specific case the method used is
“woven” into one or another technique of its application.
The technique of applying educational methods refers to speech skills, gestures, facial expressions, and methods of external expressiveness of the teacher at
moments of educational interaction. In this regard, it is appropriate to quote the words
of A.S. Makarenko, who, back in the 20s of the last century, emphasized that students
perceive the influence of the teacher through his appearance, intonation of voice, and
facial expression. Consequently, this question concerns the psychotechnics of pedagogical work, the science of mental states, operations, processes in the performance
of professional functions.
Special studies of the educational practice of various categories of teachers
have shown that in the technique of implementing educational methods, two sides can
be distinguished: objective, when we are talking about the general methods of pedagogical activity of all teachers, and subjective (individual), when we mean the ability
of individual teachers to implement methods in their own educational activities. In
other words, the objective field of technology in the application of educational methods is one of the components of solving pedagogical problems. The subjective one
manifests itself in the form of professional skills and abilities of the teacher.
The scope of functioning of the technology for applying educational methods
can be legitimately determined on the basis of the previously identified stages of pedagogical activity, i.e., depending on the stages of solving pedagogical problems, the
presence of pedagogical interaction between the teacher and the students:
- the stage of preparation for the upcoming educational interaction, which involves the implementation of methods for modeling the upcoming pedagogical activity, including the choice of the most appropriate methods of education in relation to a
particular student;
- the stage of direct educational interaction, within the framework of which the
implementation of educational methods chosen (selected) by the teacher at the stage
of modeling is carried out;
- the stage of assessing the effectiveness of the educational interaction carried
out, at which the tasks of diagnosing the achieved level of formation of personal
properties and qualities of the objects of education are solved. This is a very important element of educational technology, and therefore it deserves separate special
consideration.
316
Diagnosis of good manners
Diagnosis of education is the process of determining by a teacher the level of
formation of a person’s personal properties and qualities, realized in the system of interpersonal relationships. Based on the analysis of its results, the direction and content of the main components of educational technology are clarified or corrected.
It should be noted that the problem of diagnosing education is currently one of
the new areas of pedagogical diagnostics and is still at the stage of theoretical development. As a result, it has not yet been sufficiently fully reflected in the pedagogical
literature, which makes it difficult to implement it scientifically in educational technologies. At the same time, in everyday life, both parents and teachers and other categories of the pedagogical community always strive to solve this problem, often introducing quite a lot of subjectivity into its results. As a result, the upbringing of the
same person is assessed differently by different people. Eliminating this shortcoming
is impossible without relying on the scientific and theoretical positions developed
to date.
First of all, it is necessary to understand the essence of the concept of “good
manners”. It is not considered directly in any domestic dictionary. At the same time,
in a number of pedagogical works it includes those personal characteristics that manifest themselves in a person’s relationships with the people around them. Generalizing
the scientific positions of the authors without detailing them allows us to understand
by good manners the level of formation (development) of a person’s personal proper-
ties and qualities, realized in the system of interpersonal relationships.
The instrumental part of the process of determining the level of education is
represented by a system of special methods developed in psychology and pedagogy,
as well as in other sciences. A number of authors quite reasonably combine them into
three groups: universal, general (traditional) and special (private) diagnostic methods.
The basic laws of dialectical materialism are used as universal methods — the
transition of quantitative changes into qualitative ones, the unity and struggle of opposites, the negation of negation. Their main feature is that they are used to analyze
all phenomena of objective reality without exception, but they provide teachers with
only indicative information about the object being studied, which requires subsequent
deeper clarification.
The implementation of general (traditional) methods for diagnosing good
breeding allows one to obtain more accurate results. They have already been sufficiently developed in theoretical and applied terms and are used by various categories
of teachers. As practice shows, the most accessible of them is the observation meth-
317
od, which means the study of the characteristics of a person’s personal sphere based
on an analysis of their external manifestation in natural (educational, gaming, professional activities, etc.) conditions. It involves the systematic, purposeful accumulation
of facts characterizing the actions, behavior, judgments, and personal manifestations
of a person, allowing one to draw conclusions about the level of their upbringing.
Another, most commonly used method for diagnosing good manners is an individual diagnostic conversation. From the point of view of pedagogical diagnostics,
it is a study of a person’s level of education based on an analysis of the content of the
value judgments he expresses about himself, other people and phenomena of objective reality. In its course, the teacher has the opportunity not only to gain a deeper
understanding of a person’s inner world, views, beliefs, ideals, but also to support
positive aspirations, aim them at solving existing problems, inspire them to do useful
things, pay attention to shortcomings and help in eliminating them.
The next method of the general group is the method of analyzing performance
results. At its core, it is a study of a person’s level of education based on an analysis
of the volume and quality of educational, professional, social and other activities performed by them. This method involves the teacher taking into account the actions and
deeds of the pupils, achievements and shortcomings in studies, performance of other
duties, which allows us to draw a conclusion about the characteristics of the personal
orientation of a particular person, their character, the level of formation of their life
position, etc.
In addition to the stated methods for diagnosing the level of a person’s up-
bringing, a number of others are covered in sufficient detail in the psychological and
pedagogical literature. Each of them, having a common goal, provides for its
achievement based on the analysis of specific phenomena:
- method of document analysis — the content of documents relating to a person
(characteristics, reviews, recommendations, etc.);
- experimental method — manifestation of the level of education in specially
created conditions in which, in the opinion of the teacher, the necessary quality will
certainly manifest itself;
- the method of questioning (interview) — the content of written answers given
by a person to a pre-prepared list of written (oral) questions;
- the method of independent characteristics — evaluative judgments of other
persons about the level of education of a particular person;
- biographical method — socio-psychological conditions of the previous period
of human development (ontogenesis).
318
It should be taken into account that the use of the considered general methods
provides the teacher with sufficiently voluminous material to form a conclusion about
the level of education. However, each of them separately does not provide complete
objectivity of the results. This indicator can only increase if they are used comprehensively (jointly, systematically).
Another condition for increasing the reliability of the results of diagnostics of
good manners is the use of methods of the third group — special (private) methods.
They are mainly used by professional psychologists within one of the branches of
psychology — psychological diagnostics (psychodiagnostics). For this purpose, the
survey method is predominantly used, which involves diagnosing a person’s level of
education based on an analysis of the choice one made from the proposed answers to
questions set out in a specially designed questionnaire. Currently, the most widely
used are personality questionnaires adapted to the Russian mentality by foreign authors G. Eysenck, R. Cattell, J. Taylor, J. Strelyau, as well as a number of developments by domestic psychologists.
It should also be noted that in recent years, domestic psychodiagnostic specialists have been developing and actively putting into practice survey techniques implemented using computer technology. This expands access to them and the possibility of application not only by professional psychologists, but also by various categories of teachers. They can also be used for self-diagnosis. This became possible as a
result of the fact that the computer independently processes the respondents’ answers
and interprets (assesses the person’s level of education) the results.
Thus, the considered theoretical provisions of education technology make it
possible to present it as an integral pedagogical phenomenon aimed at achieving the
main goals of education. Despite the still insufficient scientific development of this
problem, its main structural elements are already being implemented in pedagogical
practice at the empirical level. This allows us to significantly increase the effectiveness of educational activities of all categories of teachers, to direct education towards
more effective solutions to problems in the formation of the personal sphere of a person in a modern civilized society.
Questions and tasks for self-testing of knowledge
1. What is the relationship between the concepts of “technology”, “pedagogical
technology” and “education technology”?
2. Determine the place and role of goal setting in the modern model of educa-
tional technology.
319
3. Assess the practical feasibility of combining educational methods into three
groups: the formation and correction of consciousness, the organization of activities
and the formation of behavioral experience, stimulation of behavior and activity.
4. What is the significance of diagnosing good manners for improving the
model of educational technology?
5. Reveal the main directions for implementing an integrated approach in educational technology.
Additional literature
1. Бороздина, Г.В. Психология и педагогика : учебник для бакалавров /
Г.В. Бороздина. — 2-е изд., испр. и доп. — Москва : Юрайт, 2016. — 477 с.
2. Психология и педагогика: в 2 ч. Ч. 2: педагогика : учебник для академического бакалавриата / под общей редакцией В.А. Сластенина, В.П. Каширина. — Москва : Юрайт, 2016. — 374 с.
320
CHAPTER 11
FAMILY AS A SUBJECT OF PEDAGOGICAL INTERACTIONS
The concept and features of family education. The evolution of family and
family education. The concept and specifics of family education. Sociocultural environment of family education. Manifestation of relations between parents and children
in family education. Conflicts in family education. Family parenting style.
Technology of family education. Goals and objectives of family education.
Principles and rules of family education. Methods and means of family education.
Models of family education. Types of rational educational relationships in the family.
Self-education of children in the family. Coordination of pedagogical activities of
family, school and public organizations.
As you know, pedagogical interaction between people is not limited only to
educational, industrial, service and other institutions. Its tasks are also solved by other
public structures and organizations. As a result, in recent years, in pedagogy, the
phenomenon of “public education” has been identified, which is understood as
pedagogical interaction carried out in the “person-to-person” system, i.e. through
direct human relationships, as well as by public institutions specially approved for
this purpose — charitable foundations, organizations, associations, etc. Sometimes
this concept is narrowed to a separate area of educational activity, for example, in the
family. In this case, it is designated by a special term — “family education”.
11.1. CONCEPT AND FEATURES OF FAMILY EDUCATION
A family is a small group based on marriage or consanguinity, whose members
are bound by a common life, mutual moral responsibility and mutual assistance. In
the family, relationships determined by gender differences and sexual need manifest
themselves in the form of moral and psychological relationships. As a social
phenomenon, the family undergoes changes in connection with the development of
society. However, the progress of family forms and family education is relatively
independent.
The evolution of family and family education
In the early stages of human existence — within the framework of tribal
relations — the family did not exist. Relationships between people were built on the
principle of polygamy, that is, free choice and change of sexual partners, as well as
Соседние файлы в предмете [НЕСОРТИРОВАННОЕ]