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Файл:Psychology and pedagogy. Study aid
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The humanistic nature of learning is especially clearly manifested in conditions
of continuous education. In this case, the most important task of educational institutions is to prepare students for self-education. As direct pedagogical influence is replaced by indirect guidance, learning increasingly takes the form of independent cognitive activity. Along with the decrease in the proportion of direct teaching, the didactic relationship between teaching and learning becomes more and more indirect
until it completely turns into self-learning.
The main and determining sources of learning are the current and future needs
of society, its requirements for the individual. These requirements are embodied in
the pedagogically developed content of training, which in the domestic pedagogical
tradition is considered in unity with activities aimed at personal development.
The content and procedural aspects of learning are in unity and influence each
other. Indeed, the content of education is revealed only in the learning process. However, it can also be presented in an idealized form in abstract theoretical constructs or
in educational materials. The volume and structure of such materials must correspond
to the laws and principles of learning, the conditions in which it takes place, as well
as the capabilities and characteristics of the developing personality of students. In this
regard, various systems for organizing training are used in domestic education. In recent years, these include an individual training system, a classroom-lesson system, a
lecture-seminar system, a subject-course training system, a course-based training system, etc. Each of them uses characteristic organizational forms, which helps create
specific conditions for achieving specific goals training.
Learning Objectives
In modern pedagogical literature, two aspects are distinguished for learning
purposes: subject and personal.
The subject aspect represents students’ mastery of the basics of scientific
knowledge, general preparation for practical activities and the formation of scientific
beliefs. At the same time, the personal aspect involves the development of the ability
to think (mastery, for example, of such mental operations as classification, synthesis,
comparison, etc.), the development of creative and cognitive abilities, as well as such
psychological phenomena as perception, imagination, memory, etc. In addition, the
formation of needs, motives of behavior and a system of personal values takes place
here.
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The dual nature of learning goals is caused by the very structure of personality.
In this regard, A.V. Petrovsky identified four main components that make up the
structure of a student’s personality:
- individual typological characteristics (temperament, character, abilities);
- mental processes (memory, thinking, will, feelings, emotions);
- experience (knowledge, skills, abilities);
- orientation (needs, motives, beliefs).
The presented components have both a biological and a social basis. Thus, individual typological characteristics are formed depending on the level of develop-
ment of a person’s psychophysiological (biological, hereditary) system. Mental pro-
cesses are also largely biological in nature, although the level of their development is
largely determined by social conditions (including learning). Experience is mainly
acquired through learning, but the level of its development may also depend on certain biological principles. The components of orientation are almost completely determined by the social conditions of a person’s life.
The presented approach to considering learning goals allows us to conclude
that their formulation cannot be limited only to the formation of a system of
knowledge, skills and abilities. During the learning process, it is also necessary to
form and develop a whole list of personal properties and qualities. This approach requires a significant improvement in the learning process, which should not only help
improve the educational level of the individual, but also pursue personal goals. As a
result, in the general interpretation of the problem of learning goals, four groups
have now been identified:
- defining goals through the content of the material being studied (study of a
specific topic, paragraph, chapter, etc.). However, although this approach to setting
goals directs the teacher towards a specific result, it does not make it possible to think
through the individual stages of the learning process and its design;
- determination of goals through the activities of the teacher (introduce, show,
tell, etc.). At the same time, such goals do not provide for the achievement of specific
results — what should be achieved in the learning process, what will be the level of
knowledge, general human development, etc.;
- defining goals through the internal processes of intellectual, emotional and
personal development of students (to form interest, develop cognitive activity, update
skills, etc.). But goals of this type are too general, which makes it difficult to control
them holistically;
- determination of goals through the organization of educational activities
(solve a problem, complete an exercise, study independently, etc.). Although such
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goals focus on organizing active cognitive activity, they cannot always give the expected result.
A generalization of the presented approaches to goal-setting of the learning
process allows us to conclude that the teacher must be able to independently determine the primary goals, i.e. logic, hierarchy of specific goals for each educational lesson, taking into account the prospects for further educational work. This is what will
create conditions for the implementation of its three most important functions in the
educational process: educational, educational and developmental.
Basic training functions
As already noted, in order to understand the role of learning as a means of education, upbringing and development of a person, it is of utmost importance that this
process is not limited only to the mastery of knowledge by students, the development
of practical skills and abilities of creative activity. Learning has a broader impact on
the individual. The fact is that knowledge, as a subject of assimilation, has three interconnected sides: theoretical (facts, theoretical ideas and concepts), practical (skills
and abilities to apply knowledge in various life situations) and ideological and moral
(ideological and moral ideas contained in knowledge). This means that in the process
of learning, the individual is simultaneously enriched with new scientific knowledge
of a certain educational level, the development of their intellectual and creative abilities, as well as the formation of a worldview and moral culture.
The educational, upbringing and developmental functions of teaching are implemented in unity, which allows us to talk about them as an additional principle of
educational activity, which requires special efforts of teachers to ensure it. In this
case, the teaching activity of the teacher must be designed and implemented so that
its substantive and procedural aspects, implemented in teaching and learning, perform
functions determined by the needs of the individual, society and the state.
As is known, the content of education, in addition to the traditionally provided
knowledge, skills and abilities, also includes elements that reflect the experience of
creative activity and the experience of a personal attitude to the system of social values. All these elements are transferred to students during the learning process.
By conveying the experience of an emotional-valuable relationship, the teacher
implements the educational function of teaching. It is during training that certain
qualities of a student’s personality can be purposefully formed. This can be done, for
example, by including in the educational material problems that cause difficulties for
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students, the overcoming of which contributes to the formation and development of
the corresponding character traits.
However, the use of educational tools alone is not enough to shape student behavior in real life situations. If the educational function is mediated by a multitude of
pre-planned, to a certain extent, artificial educational situations, then the educational
function has real, life content. Such specially carried out work is necessary, since
through training not only certain activities and forms of relationships are transmitted,
but also their ideal model, general principles and norms.
The implementation of the educational function in teaching gives it a unique
quality, designated in pedagogical literature by the concept of “educational teaching.”
At the same time, it is understood as such training in which an organic connection is
achieved between students’ acquisition of knowledge, skills, abilities, assimilation of
experience in creative activity and the formation of an emotional and value-based attitude to the learning material being acquired.
The relationship between teaching and upbringing from the point of view of
organizing pedagogical activity is determined by the fact that the main thing in education is the acquisition of personal life experience by students. In this regard, there
are different interpretations of the differences between training and education, suggesting different ways of combining them into a single process.
According to one point of view, education serves cognitive activity and plays a
leading role in the formation of a worldview, and education is aimed mainly at organizing labor, social and other activities and forms norms of morality and law.
Another position comes from the definition of education (in a broad sense) as a
purposeful, specially designed and organized activity to introduce a person to the life
of society. The two components of this activity are teaching as an activity of transmitting social experience by teachers through teaching and its assimilation by students in
the course of learning, and education (in the narrow sense) as an activity of directly
including students and educated people in everyday life.
In pedagogical reality, these types of activities merge. However, such unity can
only be ensured through a specially organized educational process.
The same applies to the implementation of the developmental function, which
gives the educational process a specific quality of “developmental education”, which
focuses pedagogical theory and practice on improving the physical, cognitive and
moral abilities of students by using their potential.
To implement the considered learning functions, teachers and students must
form a corresponding need, which is based on the motive of educational activity
(learning).
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Motivation in the educational process
Motivation is the general name for the process of encouraging students to engage in productive cognitive activity and actively master the content of learning.
With the teacher in mind, we are talking about motivation for learning. From the
learner's perspective, we are talking about motivation for learning.
Motivation, as a process of changing the states and relationships of an individual from the standpoint of domestic psychology, is based on motives, which are specific motivations, reasons that force a person to act in a certain way. They can also be
defined as an attitude towards the subject of activity (educational, social, professional, etc.). The role of motives is needs and interests, aspirations and emotions, attitudes
and ideals. That is why motives are considered as complex psychological formations,
which are dynamic systems in which the analysis and evaluation of alternatives,
choice and decision-making are carried out.
According to the levels of influence on educational activity, cognitive motives
are divided into the following groups:
- broad social motives — duty, responsibility, understanding of the social sig-
nificance of learning;
- narrow social (positional) motives — the desire to occupy a certain position
in the future, to receive recognition from others or a decent reward for one’s work;
- motives for social cooperation — orientation towards various ways of inter-
acting with others, asserting one’s role and position among other students;
- broad cognitive motives — reliance on erudition, satisfaction from the learn-
ing process itself or its results;
- educational and cognitive motives — orientation towards ways of acquiring
knowledge, mastering specific academic subjects;
- motives for self-education — emphasis on acquiring additional knowledge,
developing the necessary skills and abilities.
Different motives have unequal power of influence on the results of the educa-
tional process. In this regard, students’ motives can be divided into incentive ones
(they underlie various purposeful actions) and meaning-forming ones, which seem to
“translate” socially significant values to the personal level.
Motives for learning are also sometimes divided into external and internal. The
first come from teachers, parents, study group (class), society and take the form of
hints, advice, demands and even coercion. However, the true source of a person's positive motivation lies within himself. That is why decisive importance is attached not
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to the motives of learning (external influence), but to the motives of learning — internal driving forces.
Didactics also distinguishes conscious and unconscious motives for learning.
The first are expressed in students’ understanding of what reasons prompt them to a
particular level of learning, the ability to arrange them according to the degree of personal significance. Unconscious motives are only felt, existing at the level of the subconscious in vague, not controlled by consciousness, attractions to educational activities.
The study of the problem of positive motivation in educational activities is carried out in inextricable connection with their formation. Pedagogical practice shows
that in this case it is advisable to adhere to a certain algorithm, which includes several
relatively independent, but mandatory organizational and pedagogical actions. These
include:
1. Determination and clarification by the teacher of learning goals.
2. Identification of age-related motivation opportunities. Here the teacher must
receive clear answers to two questions:
- what indicators of motivation should students of different ages be brought to?
- to what extent does the level of motivation correspond to age standards, set
goals and learning objectives?
3. Study of the initial level of motivation.
4. Determination of the leading motives of educational activities.
5. Diagnosis of individual characteristics of motivation.
6. Analysis of the dynamics of motivation and its reasons.
7. Formation of positive motives for learning.
8. Assessing the results achieved and planning subsequent corrective activities.
Positive motivation for learning, formed according to the presented algorithm,
presupposes the formation of the learner’s desire for productive educational and cog-
nitive activity. However, in the conditions of an educational institution it will be carried out under the influence of various, often multidirectional factors.
Learning Factors
The problem of learning factors in didactics is considered in the context of its
productivity. It is to this concept that the cause-and-effect relationships operating in
the educational process should be linked, which in this case are called productogenic
(product-forming, elementary) causes. How much and what quality of educational
product is produced in the educational process, what its productivity will be, depends
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entirely on which of these reasons and how they are intertwined in the interaction between teachers and students. That is why, in didactics, a productogenic cause is understood as an arbitrarily small, but necessarily integral, cause-and-effect relationship, the division of which into its component parts is impossible without losing its
meaning. It is advisable to consider it as elementary, since it can change during training, acquire different meanings, and the intensity of their influence does not remain
unchanged.
A significant cause formed from at least two productogenic causes of one
group is designated by the concept of “single factor”. In turn, their combination forms
the so-called “common factor”, the further combination of which forms complex
learning factors. At the top of the factor hierarchy there are general factors that unite
all, without exception, productogenic causes of a certain group, previously combined
into single, general and complex factors.
In the scientific pedagogical literature, specific factors are sometimes also
identified, which for some reason cannot be reduced to a single productogenic cause
and cannot be included in the previously discussed factors.
There is no doubt that the identification of these factors in the educational process is very important for the implementation of the so-called “factor analysis”,
which is the object of scientific activity of teacher-researchers. Its main task is to develop ways of consistently identifying productive causes, to reveal the mechanism for
constructing certain factors from them, to objectively study them, to determine the
weight of each in the final product and to establish the subordination between them.
As new knowledge is accumulated, more complex problems are solved using factor
analysis, for example, establishing interfactor connections or clarifying the areas and
limits of action of pedagogical laws. The main significance of factor analysis in pedagogy lies in the fact that with its help productogenic causes, despite their heterogeneity, variability and complexity for diagnosis, can be identified, ranked and studied
by objective methods, and also reduced to a relatively small number of general, complex and common factors.
For a reasonable combination of various productogenic causes or individual
learning factors, factor analysis takes into account their correlation coefficient, which
shows how one factor changes relative to another or how they are interrelated. Thus,
with its help it is possible to establish the dependence of the completeness of assimilation of educational material on the number of its repetitions.
The general, complex and common factors of learning identified with the help
of the factor analysis as a whole reveal its specifics. However, in pedagogical prac-
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tice, only general factors that collectively determine the formation of the products of
didactic processes are taken into account. Currently, four of them are the most used.
1. Educational material. Contains general causes of information origin. It is
taken into account that educational information is divided into cognitive (knowledgecarrying) and control — signals on how to assimilate cognitive information. As a result, the educational material is quite unique information.
At the same time, within this general factor, two complex factors are logically
distinguished: objective information (content, quantity of educational material, its
quality) and didactic processing (method of presentation, structure, accessibility of
educational material).
2. Organizational and pedagogical influence. Unites a large group of productogenic reasons that characterize the activities of a teacher and the qualitative levels
of organization of the educational process. This factor also distinguishes two complex
ones: organizational and pedagogical influence in classrooms (methods of teaching
and learning, organizational forms, performance of the teacher and students, monitoring and verification of results) and educational influence outside of classrooms (volume, control and nature of assistance from parents, other adults and friends, academic
work schedule, studying additional literature).
3. Student learning ability. This factor represents the ability to learn and the
ability of students to achieve their learning goals in a set time. Two complex factors
are also highlighted here: learning ability during training sessions (the general level
of preliminary training of students, their ability to master educational material, thinking characteristics, etc.) and learning ability during extracurricular hours (selfcontrol, will, perseverance, focus of learning, etc.).
4. Time required to study the material. This general factor identifies the time
spent in the lesson (time to perceive educational information, its initial comprehension, the formation of knowledge and its consolidation, the required number of repetitions, etc.), as well as the time spent on independent work (time to do homework, attend elective and additional classes).
The presented factors have a significant impact on the organization and implementation of the learning process. At the same time, in recent years, in educational
institutions of various levels, a specific factor has emerged, it has a significant impact
on the educational process as a whole, reflecting the level of informatization of the
educational process.
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Informatization of the educational process as a factor in learning
The formation and manifestation of the informatization factor is due to the fact
that among the specific modern socio-pedagogical problems of the educational environment of society, the central place is occupied by the contradiction between the rate
of increase in knowledge and the limited capabilities of its assimilation by an individual. One of the most promising directions for its resolution was the expanded use
of various technical teaching aids in the educational process, which subsequently began to be considered as its informatization.
Informatization of the educational process is currently interpreted as the
process of implementing a complex of material and socio-pedagogical innovations
associated with the use of information products on audio, video and digital media in
the educational process with the help of appropriate equipment and the necessary
pedagogical technologies. It is believed that this is part of the process of informatization of modern Russian society, which can be considered as one of the determining
factors in the turn to a highly organized stage of its civilization. This phenomenon
took on the widest scale in our country in the second half of the 90s of the last century due to the increase in the number of electronic computers (computers), video, audio and television equipment in educational institutions and the expansion of the
scope of their application. This made it possible at the beginning of the 21st century to
talk about the so-called “new information technologies for education.” At the same
time, many practicing teachers increasingly see only computers in combination with
various peripheral devices as the means implemented in them — displays, printers,
multimedia equipment, etc.
To date, the capabilities of a fairly large number of information training sys-
tems are being realized in the educational process of domestic educational institutions. In the pedagogical literature they are combined into several relatively independent types. The most widely used in recent years are the following:
- training systems designed primarily to consolidate existing knowledge and
skills developed in the educational process and the ability to perform certain actions;
- mentoring systems focused on mastering concepts and operating in a mode
close to programmed training;
- problem-based learning systems that use the ability to focus on teaching students to solve problems and implement algorithms for indirect control of the cognition process;
- simulation and modeling systems that allow you to create a visual image
(model, diagram, etc.) of the object being studied;
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- gaming software systems that use the possibilities of a game solution to an
educational problem as a learning tool.
At the same time, an analysis of the history of expanding the possibilities of informatization of the educational process shows that it uses two main approaches —
traditional and intellectual. Thus, the traditional approach involves the use of training programs based on a specific, only correct algorithm for solving an educational
problem with a clear correct answer. For a long time it was implemented as didactic
control means. At the same time, the intellectual approach provides the student with
the opportunity to choose different ways to solve a learning problem and provides for
the management of their learning activities, taking into account all its features, starting from setting and searching for a solution principle and ending with assessing the
optimality of the solution. In other words, in contrast to the traditional approach, here,
in accordance with the established system of rules, the management of educational
activities is organized as a heuristic process. It is also very important that it provides
interactive interaction between the information tool and the student in a language
close to him, during which not only the correctness of certain actions can be discussed, but also the strategy for finding a solution, planning an algorithm, control
techniques, etc.
It should be noted that the use of an intellectual approach in the interests of informatization of the educational process makes it possible to increase the level of individualization of learning and its personal orientation. Due to the fact that, for example, a computer can explain its actions (including the strategy for finding a solution to a problem), and the student gets the opportunity to see the results of these actions, new opportunities arise for the latter to reflect on their activities. In addition, it
is allowed for students to set one or another educational task themselves and manage
the process of solving it. If necessary, the same assistance is provided as in solving
problems generated by the training system itself. This makes it possible to ensure the
distribution of control functions between the computer and the student, transferring to
the latter, as the skills of learning activities develop, new learning functions and ensuring an optimal transition from learning (within the framework of learning) to selflearning.
Informatization of the educational process stimulated special pedagogical research into the patterns of this phenomenon. Thus, in particular, at the beginning of
the 21st century it was found that different parts of the structure of educational institutions are unequally predisposed to all kinds of components of information support.
For example, the greatest need for computerization is experienced only by structures
supporting the educational process, management systems of educational institutions,
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