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The distinctive psychological characteristics of the bourgeois class (top and
middle owners, top hired managers, representatives of higher authorities, financial
oligarchs) are a rational way of thinking and business ethics, dedication and selfrestraint in production activities, individualism and selfishness, a pronounced need to
withstand competition, high desire to obtain maximum production and financial
profit. Dedication to one’s business is no less clearly manifested, expressed in a
continuous focus on its expansion, the constant investment of more and more
financial resources in production, the desire to strengthen and improve it, to conquer
new markets for products, high business (and often interpersonal) aggressiveness,
desire to maintain oneself as part of the privileged class, etc.
The middle class (petty bourgeoisie and small owners, intelligentsia and midlevel administrative personnel), as a rule, is distinguished by hard work, dedication to
the profession and their work, a sufficient degree of responsibility and sense of duty,
high pragmatism and individualism, competence and organizational talent. In many
cases, the ability to think ahead and have the skills to effectively organize one’s
activities and the work of subordinate personnel are noted. At the same time, many of
them have a feeling of instability of their work and their efforts, the periodic presence
of a feeling of fear, powerlessness, inability to influence the course of events, etc.
The main characteristics of the psychology of the working class (industrial and
agricultural workers, lower-level employees) are hard work, insufficient satisfaction
with their social and material situation, a fairly stable ideological orientation, the
ability to massively express their social and property sentiments, and a greater
susceptibility to the influence of ideological propaganda and agitation. It is
characterized by sufficient isolation from communication with representatives of
other classes, a high degree of class organization and cohesion.
At the same time, it should be taken into account that there are significant
psychological differences between industrial and agricultural workers, due to
different living conditions in the city and the countryside. In connection with this,
agricultural workers are more self-possessed, persistent, and less susceptible to
swings in moods and experiences.
Marginal segments of the population (the unemployed, the poor, people
without a specific occupation or place of residence) are usually characterized by a
lack of faith in their strengths, a belief in the hopelessness of their situation, moral
and spiritual degradation, social fear, etc.
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Features of national psychology
National (ethnic) psychology is represented by psychological phenomena that
arise as a result of interaction (mutual perception, communication, joint activities,
etc.) of representatives of different nations (ethnic groups), as well as their national
psychological characteristics. It exists and manifests itself in the form of national
identity, temperament, interests and value orientations, feelings, moods and traditions
of representatives of specific ethnic communities15.
National psychology is considered as an integral part of social consciousness. It
is real, manifests itself in the actions and behavior of people and groups and mediates
all forms of their consciousness — politics, law, morality, religion, science, art,
philosophy. Its content and features are formed as a result of the functioning of the
mechanisms of national attitudes and national stereotypes and have certain properties.
As a result, there are two sides in the structure of national psychology — systemforming and dynamic.
The content of the system-forming side is revealed by the following national
psychological properties:
- national identity — people's awareness of their belonging to a certain ethnic
community and its position in the system of public (state, interethnic, etc.) relations;
- national character — a historically developed set of stable psychological traits
of representatives of a particular ethnic community;
- national temperament – specific behavioral characteristics of representatives
of a nation, determined by their prevailing type of higher nervous activity;
- national interests and orientations — socio-psychological phenomena that reflect the motivational priorities of representatives of a particular ethnic community,
serving to preserve its unity and integrity;
- national feelings — the emotionally charged attitude of people towards their
ethnic community, its interests, other peoples and values;
- national traditions — rules, norms and stereotypes of rituals, actions, behavior
and communication of representatives of a particular ethnic community, firmly rooted
in everyday life, passed on from generation to generation.
15
An ethnic community is usually understood as a set of people united by such characteristics as the unity of
historical development, territory, language, culture and mentality.
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The dynamic side of the psychology of a nation, in contrast to the systemforming one, allows us to identify and comprehend the specifics of the manifestation
and functioning of national psychological phenomena, which makes it possible to
reveal the national psychological characteristics of people. In this regard, in the
structure of the dynamic side of national psychology there are:
- motivational and background features (efficiency, prudence, etc.), which
characterize the motivating forces of activity of representatives of a particular ethnic
community, show the originality of their motives and goals;
- intellectual and cognitive characteristics (logic, breadth, depth and speed of
thinking, etc.), revealing the specifics of perception and thinking of representatives of
national psychology, expressed in the presence of characteristic cognitive qualities
that differ in characteristics from representatives of other nations;
- emotional-volitional characteristics that determine the functioning of members of the community with clearly expressed unique emotional and volitional qualities, on which the effectiveness of activity largely depends (for example, the restraint
of the British, the ardor of the Italians, the volitional stability of the Chinese, the ability of the Japanese to withstand long-term volitional efforts);
- communicative and behavioral (views, external forms of behavior, techniques
and methods of information exchange), covering the specifics of information and interpersonal interaction, communication and relationships between representatives of
specific nations.
Political psychology
Political psychology (political-psychological phenomena) are psychological
phenomena that characterize the activities and behavior of large groups of people in
the struggle for power in the sphere of government. It is an integral part of social
psychology, with the help of which the system of political relations in the state is
comprehended.
The specificity of political psychology lies in the high degree of reflection of
the social and class interests of people, as well as the active influence of politics on
other forms of social consciousness (law, morality, art, philosophy, etc.). Its essence
is realized as a result of reflecting political reality, taking into account the social
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interests of people. Its main content consists of political ideas and theories, views,
interests, moods and feelings of people influenced by politics.
Modern Russian psychology classifies the components of the political
psychology of society in terms of goals, means and policy regulators. From these
positions it explores:
1) motives, interests, views and beliefs of representatives of various parties,
initiating their political activity and causing certain reactions to political processes.
Here, also very important are explanations of the need for power, leadership,
achievement of political goals, disclosure of the socio-psychological characteristics
of the political consciousness of representatives of individual parties, taking into
account their class, national, religious affiliation, etc.;
2) psychological patterns of political thinking, its substantive components and
structure, features of the formation of ideas and views related to political activity.
Researchers are no less interested in the patterns and mechanisms of political
decision-making, issues of developing special methods of intellectual stimulation and
control of political activity, the struggle for power, situational behavior of subjects
and objects of politics;
3) individual and group feelings, moods and experiences that arise in the
course of political activity and accompany it. In recent years, sufficient importance
has been given to identifying the psychological patterns of the influence of emotions,
feelings and will on the effectiveness and content of the activities of subjects and
objects of politics, the formation of likes and dislikes, political frustration and
tension;
4) features of political communication, interactions and relationships of both
individual representatives of the political system of the state and groups of people. Of
sufficient interest are the psychological features of the socialization of subjects and
objects of political activity, the role behavior of people involved in politics, in the
struggle for power, methods and techniques for forming the political image of
leaders, the uniqueness of leadership and management of political activity in the
struggle for power, etc.
The decisive influence on the formation of the political psychology of the state
is given to the political leader — the leading person of the party, who carries out the
unification and consolidation of social forces, who sets the direction of the activities
of state and public institutions, political movements. Leading person’s main
psychological features are: the presence of a clear political program that meets the
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interests of large social groups; popularity, the ability to please people, to win their
sympathy; political will, willingness to take responsibility; sharp mind, political
intuition and high political culture; organizational talent and oratory skills.
The classification of political leadership is quite diverse. Typically, leaders are
divided into types according to the social nature of their authority (traditional,
bureaucratic and charismatic), the relationship of authority to people (authoritarian
and democratic) and in relation to the political system (functional and dysfunctional,
conformist and non-conformist).
Specifics of religious psychology
Religion has its own psychological characteristics. Firstly, this is a specific
form of social consciousness of people, which has its own characteristics and causes
the peculiar states of believers. Secondly, it presupposes the existence of special
groups (groups of believers) and confessional (group) exclusivity. Thirdly, religion is
associated with belief in images and concepts that are considered sacred and
interpreted as supernatural. Fourthly, it implies a certain set of beliefs expressed in
religious canons. Fifthly, it presupposes a special set of certain cult actions and
rituals. In addition, religion, as a specific form of social consciousness, is
characterized by a special combination and interaction of ideology and psychology,
the presence of unique types of practical religious experience of believers, and a
predominant focus on keeping believers under their influence and control over their
psyche.
Religious psychology — psychological features of interaction, mutual
perception, communication and relationships of large groups of people who believe
in supernatural, unearthly forces (for example, in God). The basis of its formation is
the mental characteristics of the individual. Consequently, it represents a special
sphere of manifestation of human psychology, associated with his search for a
spiritual (psychological) “niche”, ideological and other guidelines, functioning in the
form of beliefs, practical actions and experiences. Its components usually include
religious faith, motives, value orientations, feelings, mood and specific
communication of believers, as well as their cult and ritual behavior.
No less important are the psychological characteristics of representatives of
various religious faiths. Currently, the most common religions that shape the specific
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psychology of believers include Christianity, Islamism, Judaism, Buddhism,
Hinduism and Taoism.
Christianity is one of the world's leading religions, having three main
branches: Orthodoxy, Catholicism and Protestantism. The common feature that unites
all its representatives is the belief in the triune God (Father, Son and Holy Spirit). The
main psychological characteristics of Christians are:
- faith in the only way of salvation — moving away from the corrupted sinful
world into oneself, inside one’s own personality;
- contrasting carnal pleasures with strict asceticism, and arrogance and vanity
with conscious humility and submission;
- belief in receiving freedom after death in a simple and understandable way —
through the knowledge of divine truth;
- recognition that, unlike other religions, Christianity was not created by peo-
ple, but was given by God in a ready-made and complete form.
Islam is another widespread world religion. Unlike Christianity, this is
complete, absolute monotheism, submission to Allah. He developed a rigid idea of
power and the political organization of society. As a result, it turned out to be an ideal
religious and political basis for a centralized state and the conduct of military
operations against its opponents.
The psychological characteristics of the representatives of Islam are formed by
its dogmas: to be fair, to reward good with good, and for evil with evil, to be
generous, to help the poor, etc.
Buddhism is the religion of the peoples of South, Southeast and East Asia. Its
highest goal is for believers to achieve nirvana — a state of eternal peace and bliss,
freedom from all moral and mental errors. Its main tenet is the idea that Buddha does
not save people, but only shows the right path to salvation. Therefore, no one and
nothing can save a person except themself. The most significant role in the formation
of the psychology of Buddhism is played by the teaching of love and mercy in
relation to all living beings.
Judaism is the oldest national religion. Unlike Christianity, Islam and
Buddhism, religions professed by people of different nationalities, it is inseparable
from the Jewish people. The rejection of Christ and the expectation in his place of
another, called the Antichrist in the Christian tradition, became in the past the
spiritual cause of the state and national catastrophe of the Jews and their dispersion
throughout the world. The suffering experienced and the difficult conditions of
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survival left their mark on the religious psychological characteristics of the followers
of this faith. Currently, among them there is a fairly high level of practicality,
developed mutual assistance and support, and the ability to patiently endure emerging
difficulties.
Hinduism is the main religion of the peoples of India. It is not similar to the
considered religions, firstly, it does not represent a holistic teaching and, secondly, it
was created not by any prophet, but during a long historical synthesis of various religious beliefs. All this gave rise to the specific psychological makeup of Hindus. It
intricately intertwines commitment to certain beliefs with unprincipled behavior, the
desire to achieve a certain social position with envy of those who have it higher, etc.
Taoism is the leading Chinese religion. According to its canons, believers
develop naturalness, simplicity of religious ideas, non-hostility to the outside world,
sociability, friendliness, compassion and other specific religious psychological
characteristics.
Among other religions that significantly influence the formation of the specific
religious psychology of people, the traditional Japanese religion — Shintoism —
also stands out.
In addition to the listed religions, in many countries Confucianism, an ethical
and political teaching founded by the ancient Chinese thinker Confucius, has a
significant influence on the formation of people’s psychology. Its basis is the
teachings of filial piety, the education of a highly moral person, and some others.
Under their influence, supporters of Confucianism develop such psychological
characteristics as constant care for parents in the name of their health and welfare,
honesty and sincerity, straightforwardness and fearlessness, modesty, justice,
restraint, dignity, selflessness, love for people, etc.
Knowledge of the mechanisms of formation and functioning of various social
groups, manifestations of the psychology of large groups, as well as the
psychological characteristics of their representatives is very important for
understanding certain phenomena occurring in society. However, the professional
activity of specialists with higher educational qualifications is not limited to this. For
them, knowledge of the psychology of small groups in which they will carry out their
professional activities is very significant.
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4.2. PSYCHOLOGY OF SMALL GROUPS AND ITS DIAGNOSTICS
In the complex organization of various institutions, enterprises, firms, etc., an
important place is occupied by their primary link — small groups, which include
from 2–3 to 30–40 people. It is they who, as they develop, create a special
phenomenon — collective psychology, which regulates the joint life and professional
activities of employees. These psychological phenomena are primarily the product of
group interaction.
Group and team
A small group is a small community of people united by a common goal of
their activities and who are in direct personal interaction (communication, educational, professional, etc. activities). Their occurrence is due to socio-economic reasons.
On the one hand, society creates for itself those “cells” in which the initial economic
and social values that form its basis are formed. On the other hand, every person,
being in society, due to social significance, the prestige of professional activity, the
desire to assert himself, strives to enter the group that interests him.
An analysis of a group association of people shows that in the dialectic of the
formation and development of a group, several stages can be distinguished, each of
which has its own content and pursues specific goals.
The first stage is the formation of a random group — an initial association of
people based on their territorial proximity at a given point in time (for example,
applicants to an educational institution who arrived for an entrance exam);
The second stage is the formation of an unorganized group (nominal group,
conglomerate), which provides for the voluntary association of people on the basis of
some coincidence of their interests, manifested during short interpersonal contacts;
The third stage is the formation of an organized group — an association of
people capable of effective joint action. It, in turn, comes in several levels.
A low level (association) is an association based on an order from the
administration (the rector’s order on enrollment in an educational institution and the
formation of study groups) or interest (fans of a certain musical genre). Such a group
can consist of up to 10 people. The period of operation is from 3 to 5 days. After the
specified time period, the association either ceases to exist or moves to a higher level.
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Middle level (cooperation) — it is characterized by more conscious activity
and organization. It occurs, as special observations show, 10–15 days after the
establishment of interpersonal interaction.
A high level (autonomization) is characterized by a clear organizational
structure and coordination of actions, internal unity of goals and motives for
educational, professional, etc. activities.
The highest level of group association of people in domestic psychology, in
contrast to most foreign schools, is usually called a team. Collective is a concept of
Latin origin, meaning “collection” or integrity that preserves the integrity of
individuality. The concept of a group is identical to the meaning of the old Russian
word “circle”. However, at the core of both is a connection that connects people. This
type of small group is characterized by strict organization, regulation of life and
activities, the presence of a respected leader, conflict-free interpersonal relationships,
and unity of moral and ethical positions. It is believed that it is in a team that each
member develops comprehensively and creatively.
Observations of research psychologists on the formation of small groups made
it possible to identify four main stages of team development.
1. The stage of social unity is the initial stage of development of a team,
characterized by the fact that the majority of its members consciously relate to the
fulfillment of the assigned social role, clearly represent their responsibilities and
goals of activity, and are guided by a single system of spiritual values that does not
contradict their personal orientations.
2. At the stage of corporate partnership, the process of mutual learning is
basically completed and friendly relationships between people are established. At this
stage, one can already detect a fairly stable psychological structure of the team:
collective opinion and mood, relationships and cohesion, discipline and collective
habits. The manager, skillfully using these phenomena, more effectively manages the
team and each subordinate individually.
3. Stage of social maturity. The team achieves unity of will of action,
knowledge and beliefs, interests and value orientations. Interaction between people is
based on mutual assistance, mutual support, interchangeability and non-conflict. All
members of this small group place high demands on themselves and diligently
improve their educational, professional and other activities.
4. At the stage of self-government, the team understands its leader (manager)
“at a glance” and perceives his orders and requirements as their own. At the same
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time, there is no need to control the actions of subordinates — this function is
performed by the personal consciousness of people adapted to the collective
aspirations and the collective control of its employees.
The considered stages of team development are typical for small groups of all
types. However, its pace may vary depending on the socio-psychological preparation
of the leader, the individual characteristics of the group members, the nature of the
educational, professional and other tasks being solved by the team. Consequently, the
general patterns of development of the team should be taken into account by the head
of the unit and specified depending on the prevailing conditions of its activity. At the
same time, the effectiveness of this activity will increase if the leader clearly defines
the type of small group and highlights the content of its structural components.
Types of small groups and their psychological structure
Depending on the organizational structure, the specifics of interpersonal
interaction and a number of other characteristics, small groups are divided into formal
and informal, diffuse and cohesive, reference and non-reference.
Formal groups are groups that have an officially defined structure from the
outside. They function in accordance with pre-established, usually publicly fixed
goals, regulations, instructions, and charters. At the same time, informal groups are
formed on the basis of the personal preferences of their members based on the
coincidence of their interests, beyond the boundaries of existing corporate rules and
requirements.
Diffuse groups are represented by random associations of people based on
common emotions and experiences. In turn, cohesive groups are characterized by
close relationships between people.
A very significant influence on people is exerted by reference groups, which
people focus on in their interests, personal preferences, likes and dislikes. Nonreference groups unite people only for the purpose of joint educational, production,
etc. activities.
Any of the listed groups has one or another structure — a certain set of
relatively stable relationships between its members. Their peculiarity determines the
entire life activity of the group. Moreover, the structure itself is influenced by both
internal and external factors. At the same time, often the nature of relations between
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