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Mental emotional-volitional processes
Emotional-volitional processes are mental phenomena that form the general
functional state of the human psyche and control the cognitive and other processes
occurring in it. They include the emotions, feelings and will of a person. Each of
them has an independent physiological basis and in its own way affects mental activity as a whole.
It is noted that various objects and phenomena of the objective world have different effects on the conscious sphere of a person — some make him happy, others
upset him, and others leave him indifferent. This is the result of a conscious response
to them by the psyche (emotions and feelings). As a result, emotions (Latin
emoveo — shocking, exciting) are understood as a holistic subjective reaction of the
human psyche to the influence of external or internal stimuli, manifested in the form
of specific experiences (pleasure or displeasure, joy or sadness, confidence or fear,
etc.). Accompanying almost any manifestation of the body’s vital activity, they reflect the significance (meaning) of phenomena or situations and serve as one of the
main mechanisms of internal regulation of mental (primarily cognitive) activity and
behavior aimed at satisfying the actual material or spiritual needs of a person.
The consistent development of emotions in society was determined by the need
to direct them to new socially significant phenomena, which led to the formation of
the highest form of their manifestation — feelings, which represent a person’s stable
emotional attitude to the phenomena of objective reality, manifested in spiritually
conditioned experiences. Consequently, feelings meet higher social needs and express
a person’s attitude towards social phenomena, other people, himself, etc. At the same
time, they are distinguished by stability, independence from the state of the body and
the visually perceived situation. At the same time, formed feelings become the main
determinants of a person’s emotional life, on which the emergence and content of sit-
uational emotions depend.
The simplest form of manifestation of emotions is the emotional background,
which represents innate hedonic (Greek hedone — pleasure) experiences that accompany certain vital sensations (for example, taste, temperature, pain, etc.). Already at
this level they differentiate into two polar types (classes). Positive (sthenic) emotions
arise as a result of a person’s awareness of the usefulness of external or internal influ-
ences on the body and encourage him to achieve or maintain them. At the same time,
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negative (asthenic) emotions stimulate activity aimed at avoiding unwanted or dangerous influences, but at the same time enslaving the functioning of the psyche as a
whole.
In extreme conditions, when the subject realizes the impossibility of coping
with the situation, affects develop — a special type of emotion, characterized by great
strength and causing violent mental (fear, rage, etc.) and vegetative (rapid heartbeat,
increased sweating, trembling in the body, etc.) changes. In the same situation, emotions can transfer the psyche into a stressful state, in which emotional excitations
from the centers of the brain through the autonomic nervous system and endocrine
glands begin to spread to peripheral, especially involuntary processes. As a result, a
change in the functions of various internal organs occurs, which can cause the development of neuroses, coronary heart disease, gastric ulcer, etc.
It is believed that the physiological basis of emotions are processes occurring
in the brain and the body as a whole as a result of the interaction of corticalsubcortical complexes of excitations, formed on the basis of hereditary and acquired
experience. Brain structures of various levels participate in the formation of emotions, which, in interaction with the reticular formation of the brain stem, constitute
their central nervous substrate. Consequently, any damage to the brain leads to a disruption in a person’s ability to adequately evaluate external or internal stimuli.
Emotions, as a process of holistic interaction between various mental and physiological structures of the human body, have a characteristic external manifestation in
motor and sound reactions, facial expressions, gestures, breathing rate, activity of the
stomach, intestines, endocrine glands, the state of blood vessels, etc. At the same
time, some reactions can be voluntarily controlled by a person (for example, breathing rate), while others (blood pressure) are not subject to such control under normal
conditions.
The main characteristics of emotions are their strength, duration, depth of impact on the body and speed of occurrence. Depending on their magnitude and combination, corresponding emotional states are distinguished, representing a certain temporary level of the holistic functioning of the human psyche. For example, mood is
considered as a weakly expressed emotional state, characterized by significant duration and some ambiguity, weak awareness of the causes and factors that cause them.
At the same time, passion is a long-lasting, effective and deep emotional state that
arose on the basis of the subject’s awareness of the need to achieve a specific goal of
activity.
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In practical psychology, a whole series of emotional states are also distinguished. In most cases, they are combined according to two characteristic signs of
impact on the body — activation or enslavement of its activity. The first group includes sthenic emotional states, which include vigor, activity, joy, satisfaction, pleasure, etc., while the second group includes passivity, apathy, fear, panic, etc.
If emotions transfer the functioning of mental cognitive processes and human
activity into the subconscious (uncontrollable) sphere, then their conscious control is
carried out on the basis of human’s will. Will is considered as a process of a person’s
conscious influence on their mental sphere in order to perform the necessary action in
accordance with the goal, overcoming physiological and (or) psychological difficulties (obstacles). In mental activity, it implements two interrelated functions: activating and inhibiting, which allows one to direct a person’s activity both towards achiev-
ing something and giving up what they do not need. Psychological analysis of volitional action allows us to draw a conclusion about its most frequently manifested sequence, which includes a certain set of stages. Let's look at its contents in a little
more detail.
1. Inducement to commit a volitional action. The role of motivating forces
for certain volitional actions is played by certain material or spiritual (mental or psychological) needs of a person. They can be very different, but in any case they force
person’s thinking to work actively, which allows them to clearly formulate and understand the purpose of the upcoming influence on emotional processes or the commission of an action (behavior).
2. Setting and awareness of the purpose of the action. The execution of any
action, including volitional action, is preceded by the formulation and understanding
of its goal, which is considered the ideal image of its result.
3. The struggle of motives. It begins as a result of a meaningful presentation
of the goal of action and is the process of determining the most significant stimulus
for volitional action. This is precisely what serves as an indicator of a person’s ability
to establish connections, understand and choose desires determined by the necessary
motives. On the other hand, the struggle of motives characterizes a person’s ability to
make the necessary efforts to achieve a goal and makes one think about responsibility
for the consequences associated with achieving or not achieving the goal.
4. Making a decision on volitional action. As a result of the struggle of motives, as well as understanding the purpose of an activity, a person makes one deci-
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sion or another. If it is positive, one evaluates one’s own capabilities to achieve the
goal of volitional action.
5. Development of an action plan. At this stage, a person chooses the means
available to them to achieve their goal, and also thinks through the sequence of their
use in volitional action.
6. Implementation of the plan of volitional action. A person performs a conscious mental (volitional) action in the interests of achieving a set goal. In this case,
they build their behavior in such a way that the plan in their mind is embodied in the
necessary emotional or physical state, mental or other skill, behavior, etc.
7. Analysis and evaluation of the performed volitional action. At each moment of volitional action, a person analyzes the progress of the action, compares the
achieved and planned target levels, which makes it possible to generally assess the
degree of achievement of the goal and, if necessary, make adjustments to it.
The presented psychological analysis allows us to conclude that the physiological basis of volitional action (will) is the blocking (inhibition) or activation by the
corresponding areas of the cerebral cortex of the activity of those areas that are responsible for the inclusion of cognitive and emotional processes in the mental sphere
of the body.
However, it should be noted that at the same time, emotional processes try to
suppress volitional efforts and extend their influence to the cognitive sphere of human activity. This is due to the conditioned reflex nature of the will. On the basis of a
temporary nervous connection, a wide variety of systems are formed and consolidated, which, in turn, creates the conditions for purposeful action. The brain continuously receives information about the mental and physiological state of the body, which is
immediately implemented in an already developed program of action. In addition, the
reflex nature of volitional regulation of behavior presupposes the creation in the cerebral cortex of a focus of optimal excitability, which can be caused not only by the
current stimulus, but also by a reflex formed on the basis of earlier influences.
Depending on the nature of the goal, the complexity (difficulty) of the obstacle
and the conditions for implementation, the volitional mental process in question is divided into several types of volitional actions (will): simple and complex, intentional
and unintentional.
Simple volitional actions are actions aimed at achieving a well-conscious and
imaginable goal in the near future, when the methods of achieving it are predetermined and familiar.
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Complex volitional actions are a series of sequential acts with internal contradictions, each of which is associated with the need to overcome particular obstacles
and difficulties.
Intentional volitional actions are a conscious action to overcome existing physiological or psychological difficulties in accordance with the set goal.
Unintentional volitional actions are usually a subconscious action to overcome
difficulties without first forming a goal setting. Often this type of volitional action
takes the form of stubbornness.
The formation, development and manifestation of one or another type of volitional action (will) occurs during the personal development of a person. The quality
of the mental phenomenon of the individual under consideration can be judged by the
corresponding characteristics of the will. These include:
- purposefulness — strict compliance of the performed activities (actions) with
a consciously set goal;
- self-control — the ability to consciously control one’s thoughts, emotions
(feelings) and actions (behaviors);
- decisiveness — the ability to quickly make the most appropriate decisions for
immediate action;
- independence — the ability to act in accordance with one’s own plan (to real-
ize one’s plan);
- persistence — manifestation of perseverance to achieve the set goal of the ac-
tivity;
- initiative — the degree of activity in searching for the most appropriate ways
to achieve the goal.
Depending on the level of each of the listed volitional characteristics, a person
develops the corresponding personality qualities: determination, discipline, courage,
boldness, etc., which find their realization in two other structural components of the
human psyche — mental formations and personality traits.
This is the main content of the basic mental processes, which are one of the
components of the integral structure of the mental sphere of a person. Their detailed
analysis allows us to conclude that the phenomena considered only allow us to reflect
in human consciousness the objects and phenomena of the objective world in various
forms of their manifestation. However, in addition to contemplation, a person also
performs a creative function — he influences the world around him accordingly. This
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influence is carried out on the basis of the second and third groups of mental phenomena, called mental formations and mental properties.
Questions and tasks for self-testing of knowledge
1. What is the peculiarity of the relationship between objective and subjective
reality?
2. What does knowledge of the peculiarities of mental development in phylo-
genesis provide for understanding the evolution of human mental development?
3. Based on a generalization of educational material, determine the interde-
pendence of the development of the psyche, brain and body.
4. Explain the interdependence of the psyche, behavior and activity.
5. Analyze the interaction and mutual influence of cognitive and emotional-
volitional processes.
Additional literature
1. Бороздина, Г.В. Психология и педагогика : учебник для бакалавров /
Г.В. Бороздина. — 2-е изд., испр. и доп. — Москва : Юрайт, 2016. — 477 с.
2. Психология и педагогика: в 2 ч. Ч 1. Психология : учебник для академического бакалавриата / под общей редакцией В.А. Сластенина, В.П. Каширина. — Москва : Юрайт, 2016. — 230 с.
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CHAPTER 2
PERSONALITY PSYCHOLOGY
The problem of personality in psychology. Consciousness and its structure.
Individual, personality, subject, individuality. Approaches to defining personality and
its structure. Worldview and socio-psychological components of personality.
Psychological structure of a person’s personal sphere. Mental formations:
concept, structure and characteristics (knowledge, skills, abilities, habits, beliefs,
consciousness). Concept, structure, features of the formation and manifestation of
mental properties: orientation, temperament, character and abilities.
The fundamentals of the formation and functioning of the human psyche, discussed in the previous chapter, reveal only the features of the reflection of the external environment in consciousness. At the same time, among other living beings, man
is distinguished by active and purposeful interaction with the world around them, as a
result of which their mental sphere is filled with new components. They represent
specific mental phenomena that form the personal sphere of a person — personal
psychology.
It should be noted that at present in domestic and foreign psychology there is
no single approach to understanding the essence of personality psychology. As a result, the chapter presents material based on the views of the majority of domestic
psychologists, shared by pedagogical science and adapted to the conditions of professional activity of a manager (specialist) with higher educational qualifications.
2.1. THE PROBLEM OF PERSONALITY IN PSYCHOLOGY
Unlike inorganic nature, a living organism continuously interacts with its environment. Its evolution from the simplest species to humans is a change of increasingly complex forms of such interaction, as a result of which a specific mental phenom-
enon is formed, denoted by the concept of “consciousness.” However, its existence
without the external environment is impossible. Consequently, without understanding
the influence of the environment on the human psyche, the nature of the formation of
consciousness and its structure cannot be understood.
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Consciousness and its structure
As is known, the products (conscious images, concepts, natural connections,
etc.) of reflection of objective reality are fixed in consciousness, the phenomenon of
which is inherent only to man. It is considered in psychology as the highest level of
functioning of a person’s mental sphere, separating him from the surrounding reality
and allowing him to reflect it in the form of corresponding mental images that serve
as regulators of purposeful activity. It is formed, functions and develops in the process of human interaction with reality, but necessarily on the basis of his sensoryobjective activity and socio-historical practice. Reflecting the objective world in its
content, consciousness is determined by natural and social reality. Objects, their
properties and relationships exist in it in the form of ideal images, which are the
product of brain activity.
The most important functions of consciousness are the mental construction of
actions and anticipation of their consequences, control and management of human
behavior, as well as analysis and assessment of what is happening in the environment
and in one’s own spiritual world. Consequently, consciousness reflects a person’s at-
titude to the external and internal environment, which makes it possible to include in
its structure not only person’s entire life in its uniqueness and originality, but also
their own experience of the system of relationships to reality formed as a result of
this. As a result of this, consciousness is viewed as a complex systemic formation that
has different levels, knowledge of which is expressed in ideas about the degree of its
distinctness or clarity. Usually these degrees in a normal person are determined by
their self-reports and the nature of thier orientation in the surrounding reality. This, in
particular, is expressed in transitions from concentration on objects of thought and
action, about which there is clear knowledge, to the loss or substitution of objects of
thought. In this regard, consciousness is inseparable from attention, which allows it to
limit the range of perceived objects, bringing others to the periphery or beyond6.
In practice, various degrees of clarity of consciousness are also observed. Their
range is quite wide and ranges from states characterized as insight (insight — a sudden understanding of the essence of a phenomenon that is not deducible from past
experience, but logically explainable) to the so-called “twilight” states of conscious-
ness.
6
The neurophysiological basis of this phenomenon was explained in the teaching of A.A. Ukhtomsky about
the dominant.
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Thus, consciousness acts as the highest level of mental activity of a person as a
social being. Its originality lies in the fact that its reflection of reality in the form of
sensory and mental images anticipates the practical actions of a person, giving them a
goal-oriented character. As a result, domestic psychological science proceeds from
the fact that personality as a psychological phenomenon is formed and developed in
the process of human ontogenesis (physical and mental development from birth to
death) as a result of the subjective reflection of objective reality in person’s consciousness. At the same time, there are significant differences in the volume, nature
and external orientation of the mental phenomena formed in this process. In modern
science they are revealed by the concepts of “individuality”, “personality”, “subject”
and “individuality”.
Individual, personality, subject, individuality
No one doubts that a person is born into the world as a human being. This reveals the genetic predetermination of the emergence of natural prerequisites for the
development of human characteristics and qualities. This is captured in the concept of
“individual,” which confirms a person’s tribal affiliation. According to the famous
Russian psychologist A.N. Leontyev, it expresses the indivisibility, integrity and
characteristics of a particular subject, which arise already at the early stages of life
development. From his point of view, an individual is a product of biological evolution, during which not only the process of differentiation of the organs of the nervous
system and mental functions occurs, but also their integration and mutual “harmonization.” Consequently, an individual is a person as a single natural being, an individ-
ual belonging to the human race. It is a product, first of all, of the phylogenetic development of living beings and, therefore, a bearer of innate qualities. In this sense,
the individual is simultaneously considered as a unique representative of other living
beings, differing from them in the specifics of his phylo- and ontogenetic development, as well as a representative of the human community, endowed with characteristics of the psyche and behavior inherent only to him.
However, to say about a person that he is an “individual” means to say almost
nothing. After all, it can equally include a baby and an adult, a thinker and an idiot, a
highly educated person in a civilized society and a drunkard who has sunk to the extreme. Further characteristics should somehow distinguish a person in this world. Af-
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ter all, once born, a person continues their physical and mental development and
reaches a qualitatively new level — personal.
Domestic psychology proceeds from the fact that a personality is a specific
person, a representative of a certain community (for example, the closest society —
family, friends, school class), aware of themself in the world around them, engaged in
socially significant (educational, professional, etc.) activities and endowed with certain individual psychological characteristics. Essentially, it is an individual who develops as an object in a system of social interaction and conscious activity. This is
explained by its inclusion in social relations, as a result of which it represents a certain systemic quality. And from these positions, personality can also be understood as
a certain quality of a particular person (individual), reflecting their attitude to the
world around them and determining the nature and direction of their activities.
In characterizing a person, what stands out first of all is their social essence.
Outside of society or a specific social group, a person cannot become an individual — they simply will not develop a human appearance. In turn, a person’s location in
the sphere of various relationships (production and consumption, ideological, religious, etc.) largely influences the formation of the content of their worldview, individual and social attitudes and other components of their personal sphere.
The formation of the content of a person’s personal sphere (personality) is also
influenced by the relationships of people in the group to which they belong. In the
process of their interaction (communication, joint work), they mutually influence
each other, as a result of which a commonality in views, social attitudes and other
types of attitudes towards work, people, and their own qualities is formed.
At the same time, it is in a community and social group that a person gains a
certain authority, occupies a specific position and plays corresponding social roles.
And this already allows us to talk about a person as a subject — a specific human, as
a product of historical development, realizing their personal potential in interaction
with the outside world. By entering into relationships with other people, individuals
create history, participate in joint activities, create new material and spiritual values
of society, as a result of which they significantly influence the formation of the content of social relations.
At the same time, it should be taken into account that each person, as an individual and a subject of social relations, not only has the peculiarities of the nervous
system (psyche) inherent only to them, but is also formed and develops in various social conditions, which creates the peculiar content of their psychology. This phenom-
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