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Irradiation (Latin irradiare — to shine, emit rays) is the ability of nervous processes of excitation and inhibition to spread in the central nervous system from one
element (area) to another. According to the results of special studies by I.P. Pavlov, it
underlies the generalization of the conditioned reflex and depends on the intensity
(strength) of stimulation. The dominant is the temporarily dominant focus of excitation, subordinating the activity of the nerve centers, directing it and determining the
nature of the response. As the studies of P.A. Anokhin have shown, irradiation, for
example, of inhibition is a consequence of the manifestation of the dominance of
negative influences of the external environment and their inhibitory effect on other
reactions.
Concentration is considered as the ability of the processes of excitation and inhibition to return to the original focus (area) of the nervous system, where their
strength was highest, and therefore the preservation of their traces is most stable.
Concentration underlies the mechanisms of discrimination of conditioned stimuli and
the specialization of conditioned reflex reactions.
Induction (Latin induction — guidance, stimulation) of nervous processes is a
dynamic interaction between the processes of excitation and inhibition, which is expressed in the fact that the excitation of some nerve cells can cause inhibition in others and vice versa. When a focus of excitation or inhibition arises and stabilizes in the
cerebral cortex, the state of not only those cells that are covered changes, but also
those of neighboring cells. In the latter, as a rule, the opposite process occurs. This
type of induction is called simultaneous (spatial). Another type is sequential (temporary) induction. After the disappearance of excitation in some part of the nervous system, inhibition develops in it and vice versa.
It should be noted that the presented natural scientific foundations of psychology and pedagogy are not finalized. The process of their further development and improvement does not stop. In recent years, the main efforts of scientists have been
aimed at revealing the neural mechanisms of mental processes. No less importance is
attached to the use of research methods of various sciences (physiology, psychophysiology, mathematics, etc.) in the interests of further knowledge of the laws of higher
nervous activity. The results of scientific discoveries in psychology and pedagogy, in
turn, are used in constructing hypotheses and explanatory schemes in the physiology
of higher nervous activity and vice versa. In turn, researchers of the natural science
foundations of psychology and pedagogy take part in solving psychological and pedagogical theoretical and applied problems. All this is considered as a necessary condition for a more productive understanding of various spheres of human activity (for
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example, professional, educational, educational, etc.), which are based on physiological, psychological and pedagogical foundations.
The presence of a clear methodological, general scientific and natural science
foundation allows for an in-depth study of the problems of domestic psychology and
pedagogy, focusing the efforts of researchers on solving pressing problems of professional activity, training, education and development of modern man, as well as communities of people and social groups. Their deep knowledge will largely contribute to
the comprehensive assimilation of the theoretical foundations of psychology and pedagogy, as well as the formation of the necessary practical skills and abilities implemented in the professional activities of a manager (specialist) of higher educational
qualifications. In this regard, it is important to understand the validity of using the
developments of psychology and pedagogy in the system of unified scientific and
practical knowledge.
The relationship between psychology and pedagogy
It should be noted that the development of psychology and pedagogy went in
different directions for a long time, but at the end of the 19th century. There has been
a convergence of their practical orientation. This was due to the penetration of evolutionary ideas into them and the development of applied branches of psychology and
experimental pedagogy. It is believed that the first project for building a unified domestic psychological and pedagogical knowledge on the principles of a natural science approach to teaching and raising children was proposed by P.F. Kapterev.
From a similar position, P.F. Lesgaft studied the problems of forming a child’s
mind, and also carried out a study of the so-called “school types.”
This idea is further implemented in a special comprehensive science about
children — pedology (Greek paidos — child, logos — teaching). The first works of a
pedological nature (G.S. Hall, J. Baldwin, V.M. Bekhterev, A.P. Nechaev, etc.) were
published at the beginning of the 20th century. In relation to the child’s psyche, along
with the direction that explained its development based on the principles of biological
and anatomical-physiological concepts, approaches are emerging that focus on the
cultural-historical approach and make the child’s behavior dependent on social factors. At the same time, the study of developmental problems (training and upbringing) of children encouraged reliance on objective indicators of the structure, functions
and development of the child’s psyche. However, since 1936, further development of
pedological problems in our country has been prohibited by directive. The works of
famous Russian scientists P.P. Blonsky, L.S. Vygotsky and others completed by this
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time remain unclaimed. In recent years, the concept of “pedology” is not used in foreign science either — its problems are studied in the general mainstream of the development of child psychology.
Currently, the results of psychological and pedagogical scientific developments
of domestic and foreign scientists are being comprehensively implemented in one of
the branches of psychology that studies mental phenomena that arise in the conditions
of a purposeful pedagogical process — educational psychology. Its developers
(V.V. Davydov, V.A. Krutetsky, V. James, etc.) consider transformative (formative)
experiment to be the most typical method of scientific research. According to their
assessment, it allows one to study the changes that occur in the psyche of children
during and as a result of an experimentally constructed pedagogical process (training
and/or upbringing). This approach makes it possible to identify from the many factors
simultaneously influencing a growing person those that have a decisive influence on
the course of formation of the personal properties and qualities. The research results
are implemented in private teaching methods, during the development of curricula
and textbooks, in the process of building a scientifically based system of educational
work in educational institutions at various levels.
In recent years, attempts have been made to combine the results of psychological and pedagogical research into the characteristics of the psyche of adults, as well
as the processes of their learning and educational correction (development) within the
framework of a new, still emerging science — andragogy (Greek andros — adult,
ago — to lead). Researchers and developers of its problems (L.I. Antsiferova,
A.V. Darinsky, S.I. Zmeev, E. Thorndike, etc.) consider the learning process from the
point of view of basic psychological theories, propose to carry out personal diagnostics of adults using psychodiagnostic methods, take into account the psychological
requirements for creating conditions for increasing the effectiveness of the pedagogical process.
At the same time, other attempts to combine the scientific developments of
psychology and pedagogy in the system of one scientific and theoretical knowledge
of an applied nature do not stop. The authors of one of these ideas, G.G. Bronevitsky,
S.N. Ladnov, and others, propose to implement this approach within the framework
of psychopedagogy. The peculiarity of this approach is that it proposes to use the results of scientific research in psychology and pedagogy to develop the problem of
training and education of adults as components of the professional activity of a specialist of higher educational qualifications.
The implementation of these and many other approaches in recent years has led
to the formation of specific psychological and pedagogical branches at the point of
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contact between the scientific and applied interests of psychology and pedagogy. In
this regard, sometimes there are statements that psychology is only the theoretical basis of pedagogy. However, in this case, the real line separating the subjects of these
sciences is erased. At the same time, it exists. If psychology studies mental processes,
strictly speaking, without regard to the use of relevant data in the processes of education, then pedagogy is interested in precisely the instrumental side. For example, if
the general patterns of attention and its development are studied by psychology, then
for pedagogy it is important to use it purposefully for the purposes of training and education. Consequently, it uses the facts established by psychology to investigate its
own object. That is why, in the modern English and American psychological and
pedagogical tradition, the corresponding problems belong to the applied part of general, pedagogical or social psychology.
And yet, despite the sufficient independence of psychology and pedagogy in
practical activities, the results of their research are implemented mainly together.
This is due to a number of reasons:
- firstly, in the most general form, their object of study coincides: the individual and the collective (group of people) as participants in a certain (educational, professional, etc.) activity;
- secondly, the main goal of both sciences is to increase the effectiveness of
education (vocational training), education and human development;
- thirdly, both sciences are based on a single methodological, general scientific
and natural science basis.
Consequently, these are two interrelated, complementary sciences. At the same
time, psychology puts in the hands of the teacher a unique tool for studying and influencing an individual and a group of people, which he uses in the course of their
training, education and development — the processes considered by pedagogy.
However, the inclusion of psychology and pedagogy in interdisciplinary research is productive only when it enriches it with concepts, methods, and explanatory
principles that exist only for them. At the same time, as a result of contacts with other
sciences, psychology and pedagogy themselves are enriched with new ideas and approaches that develop their content and categorical apparatus, ensuring their integrity
as independent applied sciences.
Psychology and pedagogy in the system of sciences
Modern domestic psychology and pedagogy are included in the system of humanitarian knowledge, since they are directly addressed to people. But it is equally
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true to say that they are part of social science, since they study a person in society,
groups of people and in conditions of interpersonal interaction during his training,
education and development. Consequently, these phenomena can be considered as a
specific process of socialization of the individual, which is also the subject of sociology.
Philosophy is directly related to psychology and pedagogy. Firstly, the theory
of knowledge constitutes the most general methodological basis of psychological and
pedagogical research. At the same time, different philosophical trends significantly
differently “see” the process of cognition in general and, accordingly, the process of
scientific research in particular. And this already determines both the research priorities and its methodology. Secondly, such traditionally philosophical human science
questions as the relationship between matter and spirit, the purpose and meaning of
human life, etc., form the practical solution of the actual psychological and pedagogical problems (the goals of education, its content, etc.). As a result, from the second
half of the 20th century. Some branches of philosophical and sociological knowledge,
closely related to psychological and pedagogical issues, began to actively develop:
philosophy of psychology, philosophy of education, social psychology, sociology of
education, etc.
Ethics is also very important for psychology and pedagogy. Deriving moral
norms from life practice and various philosophical systems, formulating them in the
form of moral rules, it, however, does not deal with the question of how an individual
or society appropriates these norms and corresponding patterns of behavior. This is
what psychology and pedagogy do, building directions for education and developing
its methods. In a similar way, one can imagine the interaction of psychology and pedagogy with aesthetics, as a result of which it becomes possible to develop a theory
and create an effective system of artistic education. Psychology and pedagogy also
establish their own forms of connection with some natural sciences that study man as
a biological being (anatomy, physiology, anthropology, etc.).
Economic sciences make it possible for psychology and pedagogy to take into
account the patterns of development of industrial relations, as well as to clearly represent those economic processes under which the consistent development of the mental
sphere of people, their training and education occurs. At the same time, sciences that
study the characteristics of various types of professional activities orient psychology
and pedagogy in the direction of correct understanding of the functioning of the psyche and consciousness in conditions of work and rest. This makes it possible to more
accurately determine and diagnose the level of development in people of those qualities that they need to effectively perform functional responsibilities.
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Medical sciences provide researchers of scientific problems of psychology and
pedagogy with extensive material that allows them to understand the causes of pathological and other changes in the mental development of people in the process of their training,
education, professional and other activities.
Ethnology allows psyc hology and pedagogy to correctly identify and take into account the national and other psychological characteristics of people who are representatives of certain ethnic communities who have their own specific experience of training and
education. At the same time, historical sciences allow researchers of problems of psychology and pedagogy to better understand the evolutionary nature and development trends of
the personal sphere of people, the communities that unite them, the social group and society as a whole.
Logic largely determines the structure of psychological and pedagogical research,
the content of education and the order of presentation of material in the learning process,
as well as ways of developing thinking within the educational process. Of course, this is
also the task of psychology and pedagogy within their own subject, but logical diagrams,
figures, laws are a necessary (although not always sufficient) basis if the apparatus of one
science is used to solve applied problems of another.
The connections between psychology and pedagogy and various branches of mathematics and cybernetics (probability theory, mathematical statistics, automata theory, etc.)
are undeniable. They are important for solving psychological and pedagogical problems at
the modern scientific level using the apparatus of these sciences (for example, modeling or
algorithmization).
The above allows us to conclude that psychology and pedagogy absorb from other
sciences the ideas they have studied and comprehended about the genesis and characteristics of the manifestation of the mental and pedagogical, depending on the specific realities
and phenomena that they study. This allows researchers of psychological and pedagogical
problems to more specifically carry out scientific research, more convincingly substantiate
the results obtained and formulate effective practical recommendations for their implementation in the processes of training, education and development of people, as well as
their professional activities.
On the other hand, psychology and pedagogy, by studying the conditions and specifics of the course of mental processes, the patterns of training, education and development of people and the communities that unite them, allow natural, social and other sciences to more correctly interpret the laws of reflection of objective reality, to specify the
causality of social and other phenomena.
In addition, many other sciences, which have completely different and seemingly
very distant areas of research from psychology and pedagogy, have many points of con-
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tact. As a result, new promising directions often emerge in scientific knowledge, linking
various branches of knowledge into an inseparable whole. These, for example, are the industries that arose at the intersection of psychology and pedagogy with the hard and technical sciences — computer diagnostics of the human mental sphere, as well as the level of
his knowledge, skills and abilities, the implementation of modern information technologies in the educational process, mathematical modeling, etc. Consequently, psychology
and pedagogy at the current stage of development of domestic science are at the forefront
of ongoing scientific research.
Thus, psychology and pedagogy as sciences represent a system of knowledge and
practical recommendations aimed at increasing the efficiency of professional work of specialists of higher educational qualifications. Mastering their content, as well as developing
primary skills in applying the acquired knowledge in the course of everyday activities, will
allow a graduate of a national higher school to avoid mistakes and significantly increase
the level of their professional training.
However, the study of psychological, pedagogical, scientific and applied developments in itself only creates the prerequisites for successful professional activity. It is impossible to get answers to all the questions that a novice manager or specialist may have.
This is explained by the fact that it is impossible to provide with sufficient probability the
specific conditions and specifics of the organization (institution, company) in which the
specialist will work, the moral and psychological (corporate) atmosphere, the uniqueness
of interpersonal relationships, the educational level of personnel and other psychological
and pedagogical factors that will influence the nature of its activities. This requires a creative approach not only to the study of psychology and pedagogy, but also the formation of
a primary vision of the areas of application of the acquired knowledge, analysis of the specific manifestations of the studied psychological and pedagogical phenomena during educational practice and observation of the activities of experienced specialists in the field of
upcoming professional activity.
Questions and tasks for self-testing of knowledge
1. What are the scientific sources of the formation and development of domestic
psychology and pedagogy?
2. Identify and reveal the main causes of the crisis of world psychological thought
in the first half of the 20th century, and also evaluate its impact on the subsequent development of psychology.
3. Assess the feasibility of focusing modern domestic pedagogical developments on
the interests of the individual, society, and state.
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4. Justify the fundamental provisions that explain the relationship between psychology and pedagogy in the professional activity of a manager (specialist) with higher educational qualifications.
5. What is the importance of knowledge of psychology and pedagogy for the effective professional activity of a manager and specialist of higher educational training?
Additional literature
1. Бороздина, Г.В. Психология и педагогика : учебник для бакалавров /
Г.В. Бороздина. — 2-е изд., испр. и доп. — Москва : Юрайт, 2016. — 477 с.
2. Психология и педагогика: в 2 ч. Ч 1. Психология : учебник для академического бакалавриата / под общей редакцией В.А. Сластенина, В.П. Каширина. —
Москва : Юрайт, 2016. — 230 с.
3. Психология и педагогика: в 2 ч. Ч 2. Педагогика : учебник для академического бакалавриата / под общей редакцией В.А. Сластенина, В.П. Каширина. — Москва : Юрайт, 2016. — 374 с.
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PART 1
PSYCHOLOGY
CHAPTER 1
HUMAN PSYCHE
Concept and structure of the psyche. The relationship between objective and
subjective reality, consciousness and the unconscious (subconscious). The nature of
the psyche (development of the psyche in phylogenesis). Evolution of the psyche.
Psyche, brain and body. Structure and basic (higher) functions of the psyche. Psyche,
behavior and activity.
Mental processes as the basis for the functioning of the human mental
sphere. Mental cognitive processes: sensation, perception, memory, ideas,
imagination, attention, thinking, speech. Mental emotional-volitional processes:
emotions and feelings, will.
It is known that the psyche is a special form of reflection of objective reality,
inherent only to living beings. At the same time, the reflection itself not only
represents the product of the activity of the subject, but also, mediating it, performs
the function of orientation and management of it. Consequently, mental phenomena
represent a necessary internal moment of human objective activity. Changing and
becoming more complex, they acquire a qualitatively new form in a person — the
form of consciousness generated by their life in society and serving as an indicator of
the individual psyche.
1.1. CONCEPT AND STRUCTURE OF THE HUMAN PSYCHE
Unlike inorganic nature, a living organism continuously interacts with its
environment. Its evolution, starting from the simplest species and ending with man, is
a change of increasingly complex forms of such interaction. A living organism
without an external environment supporting its existence is impossible.
Consequently, without understanding the influence of the environment on the body,
the relationship between objective and subjective reality, the nature of the human
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psyche, as well as the mechanisms of the subsequent formation of its psychology as a
result of the interaction of consciousness and subconsciousness, cannot be
understood.
The relationship between objective and subjective reality, consciousness and
subconscious (unconscious)
First of all, for this purpose, it is necessary to consider the concept and
correlation of objective and subjective reality. If we take into account that objective
reality is formed by objects and phenomena of the objective world that exist
independently of human consciousness, then the content of subjective reality is a
reflection of the objective world in the human consciousness and entirely depends on
the human psyche — their interests, emotional state, characteristics of the sense
organs, etc. As a result, different people perceive the same objects and phenomena in
different ways. In this case, two types of reflection are distinguished: reproductive
(accurate, as on photographic film) and creative (supplementing the missing features
of the objective world).
It should be noted that a mentally normal person has both types. However, in
the case of some atrophy of the creative type, a person (“realist”) sees only what is on
the surface of an object or phenomenon. If reproductive perception is lost (as a rule,
as a result of illness — psychosis), then a person perceives objective reality only as a
symbol and reflection of his own inner world. Consequently, the content of the
objective world (objective reality) reflected in a person’s consciousness depends
entirely on his psyche.
Since the psyche is diverse in its forms and manifestations, psychological
science considers as conscious everything that constitutes its subjective and fully
controlled inner world, which manifests itself in actions and deeds, in relationships
and interactions with other people. And, consequently, consciousness is considered as
the highest stage in the evolution of the human psyche as a result of its sociohistorical development, a product of their comprehensive improvement in activity.
At the same time, modern science also recognizes the presence of another form
of manifestation of the psyche — the subconscious (unconscious). At its core, this is
a process of reflecting reality, during which a person is not aware of its sources, and
the reflected reality merges with his experiences. However, for a deeper
understanding of the mechanisms of formation of the phenomena of consciousness
and subconsciousness, it is necessary to understand the very nature of the psyche.
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